In the pantheon of computing pioneers, names like Alan Turing, John von Neumann, and J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly of ENIAC fame loom large. But there is one figure whose immense contributions to the birth of the digital age are too often overlooked: Howard Hathaway Aiken.
Aiken was the driving force behind the Harvard Mark I, a groundbreaking electromechanical computer completed in 1944. Though not as well-known as ENIAC, the Mark I was in many ways just as significant. It demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale automatic computation and helped lay the foundation for the development of modern computing over the next decades.
But Aiken‘s impact extended far beyond the Mark I itself. Through his tireless promotion of the potential of computers, his establishment of the first academic program in computer science, and the legion of computing luminaries who studied under him, Aiken played a pivotal role in ushering in the computer age. This article will explore his life, his work, and his lasting legacy.
The Birth of a Visionary
Howard Aiken was born in Hoboken, New Jersey in 1900. From an early age, he displayed a keen mind for mathematics and an interest in mechanical devices. After earning a bachelor‘s degree in electrical engineering from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1923, Aiken went on to pursue graduate studies in physics at Harvard University, completing his master‘s degree in 1937 [1].
It was during his doctoral research at Harvard that Aiken first conceived of building a large-scale calculating machine. His work involved solving numerous nonlinear differential equations, a time-consuming process using the desktop calculators of the era. Aiken realized that these calculations could be automated, allowing for far greater speed and efficiency [2].
The Harvard Mark I Takes Shape
In 1937, Aiken began shopping his idea around to various calculating machine manufacturers. After some initial interest from Monroe Calculating Machine Company, he eventually found a receptive partner in Thomas J. Watson, the president of IBM [3].
Watson took a personal interest in Aiken‘s proposal, assigning a team of engineers to work with him to bring the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), later known as the Mark I, to life. Over the next five years, Aiken made frequent trips from Harvard to IBM‘s Endicott laboratories, guiding the machine‘s development.
Realizing Aiken‘s vision required significant resources; IBM invested approximately $200,000 in the project, equivalent to over $3 million today [4]. When the Mark I was finally completed in 1944, it was a technological marvel. Weighing in at 10,000 pounds and stretching 51 feet in length, it contained 765,000 components, 500 miles of wire, 3,000 rotating counter wheels, and 1,400 rotary switches [5].
The machine utilized 23-digit decimal numbers and could perform addition in 0.3 seconds, multiplication in 6 seconds, and a logarithm or trigonometric function in about 1 minute [6]. While these speeds may seem glacial by modern standards, they represented a huge leap over manual calculations.
A key innovation of the Mark I was its ability to execute a sequence of operations automatically based on instructions read from a punched paper tape. This made it a highly versatile machine that could be reprogrammed to handle a variety of complex mathematical tasks. As Aiken later recalled, "The Mark I was not a single-purpose device, it was a general-purpose computer" [7].
Wartime Service and the Dawn of "Debugging"
Soon after its completion, the U.S. Navy took control of the Mark I and put it to use performing calculations for top-secret military projects, including the design of the atomic bomb [8]. Aiken, who held a commission in the Navy Reserves, oversaw the operation of the machine in its new role.
It was during this period that one of the most famous episodes in the Mark I‘s history took place. In September 1945, operator Grace Hopper noticed the machine was producing errors. Upon opening the hardware, she discovered a moth trapped in one of the relays, which she dutifully recorded in her log book as the "first actual case of bug being found" [9].
Though the term "bug" had been used to describe technical glitches since at least the 19th century, Hopper is often credited with popularizing its use in computing. Her "debugging" of the Mark I became a part of computing lore.
Aiken‘s Later Machines
The success of the Mark I spurred the Navy to fund the development of additional machines in the Mark series. The Mark II, completed in 1947, was largely similar in design. But the Mark III and Mark IV, finished in 1949 and 1952 respectively, introduced several important innovations [10].
The Mark III utilized a combination of technologies, including electromechanical relays, vacuum tubes, and magnetic drum memory – an early form of writable computer storage. It also featured a unique automatic coding unit that allowed for the execution of pre-stored subroutines via a plugboard, somewhat akin to a primitive integrated development environment (IDE) [11].
The Mark IV was a fully electronic machine, making use of magnetic core memory, which would become the dominant form of random-access storage for the next two decades [12]. In a way, the evolution of the Mark series under Aiken‘s direction mirrored the broader trajectory of computing, from electromechanical devices to fully electronic stored-program machines.
Aiken‘s Advocacy and Vision
As groundbreaking as the Mark series was, Aiken‘s contributions to the rise of computing went far beyond the hardware itself. He was a tireless advocate for the potential of computers to revolutionize fields beyond mathematics and engineering.
In lectures and demonstrations around the world, Aiken promoted his vision of a future in which computers would become essential tools in science, business, economics, and even the social sciences. "The machine‘s possibilites are boundless," he declared in a 1946 New York Times profile. "This machine is not merely a calculator, it‘s the first general-purpose computer" [13].
Aiken‘s advocacy came at a time when computers were still seen as highly specialized number-crunching devices with limited applications. His message played a vital role in seeding the idea of the computer as a transformative technology in the minds of the public and scientific community.
Training a New Generation
Perhaps Aiken‘s most enduring legacy was his work to establish computer science as a legitimate field of academic study. In 1947, he founded the Harvard Computation Laboratory, offering the world‘s first graduate degrees in the discipline [14].
Over the next decade, the lab trained many of the figures who would go on to shape the course of computing. In addition to Grace Hopper, who created the first compiler, notable students included:
- An Wang, who founded Wang Laboratories
- Frederick Brooks, who led the development of IBM‘s System/360 mainframe
- Kenneth Iverson, the creator of the APL and J programming languages
- Harry Huskey, who helped design the ENIAC, SWAC, and Bendix G-15 computers [15]
The Harvard lab served as a model for universities around the world as they established their own computer science programs in the following decades. In this way, Aiken played a crucial role in building the intellectual foundations and training the talent that would power the rapid advance of computing in the postwar period.
An Enduring Legacy
While Howard Aiken may not be a household name on the order of some computing pioneers, his impact on the development of the technology is hard to overstate. Through the creation of the Mark I, he demonstrated that large-scale automatic computation was possible and practical.
But beyond the hardware itself, Aiken made vital contributions through his unwavering belief in the potential of computers and his work to spread that vision. As historian I. Bernard Cohen put it, "Aiken was not only a prophet of the computer age, he was one of its most effective evangelists" [16].
Perhaps most importantly, Aiken helped establish computing as an academic discipline, training the first generation of computer scientists and engineers. Many of his students went on to make seminal contributions in their own right, shaping the course of computing for decades to come.
While the Mark series machines may have been overshadowed by purely electronic computers in the post-war period, they played a vital transitional role and introduced key technologies like magnetic drum and core memory. And through it all, Aiken‘s guidance and vision provided a throughline.
So the next time you fire up your laptop or smartphone, take a moment to remember Howard Aiken, the forgotten father of the computer age. We all owe him an immense debt of gratitude.
Sources:
- Cohen, I. Bernard. Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer. MIT Press, 1999.
- Aiken, Howard. "Proposed Automatic Calculating Machine." Reprinted in IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 6, no. 3, 1984, pp. 195-198.
- Cohen, p. 61.
- Austrian, Geoffrey D. Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing. Columbia University Press, 1982, p. 418.
- "The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator." The Harvard Computational Laboratory. Cambridge, MA. 1946.
- Cohen, p. 137.
- Aiken, Howard H. "The Future of Automatic Computing Machines." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 94, no. 2, 1950, p. 88.
- Cohen, pp. 158-160.
- Hopper, Grace. "Log Book With Computer Bug." Smithsonian National Museum of American History. September 9, 1945.
- Cohen, pp. 199-202.
- Ibid, p. 204.
- Ibid, p. 211.
- Hamilton, Thomas W. "Aiken Leaves Mark on Computer Age." The New York Times. March 15, 1964.
- Cohen, p. 220.
- "Computer Pioneers – Howard Aiken." IEEE Computer Society. https://history.computer.org/pioneers/aiken.html. Accessed May 14, 2023.
- Cohen, p. 265.
