Introduction
The Roman Empire is renowned for its monumental architecture and ingenious engineering, perhaps nowhere more so than in its grand public bath complexes. Scattered across the vast reaches of Roman territory, from Europe to North Africa and the Middle East, these thermae served as much more than just places to get clean. They were the beating heart of the city‘s social life, where people from all walks of life came to exercise, relax, and mingle. Two of the most impressive examples of these baths that have survived from antiquity are the Varna Roman Baths in Bulgaria and the Baths of Caracalla in Rome.
The Varna Roman Baths
The Varna Roman Baths, also known as the Large (or Great) Thermae, are located in the modern-day city of Varna on Bulgaria‘s Black Sea coast. Constructed in the 2nd century AD, likely during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138), these baths are the largest Roman bath complex still standing in Europe outside of Rome and Trier, Germany. At its peak, the city of Odessos, as Varna was known in Roman times, boasted a population of around 30,000-40,000 people, and the baths were undoubtedly one of the main social hubs.
The Varna baths covered an impressive area of approximately 7,500 square meters (80,729 square feet). Archaeological excavations have revealed a symmetrical layout featuring an entrance hall flanked by two large changing rooms, leading to a sequence of bathing rooms typical of the Roman bath experience: the frigidarium (cold room), tepidarium (warm room), and caldarium (hot room). Other amenities included a large palaestra (exercise courtyard), an unctorium (oil massage room), and a sudatorium (steam room).
One of the most remarkable features of the Varna baths is the well-preserved remains of the hypocaust system, the innovative heating and ventilation technology that the Romans perfected. Dozens of brick pillars, each around 1 meter tall, supported the raised floor, allowing hot air from the furnaces to circulate underneath and up through cavities in the walls. This kept the floors pleasantly warm and the air comfortably humid.
Recent excavations have also uncovered evidence of lavish decoration, including marble veneers, ornate capitals, decorative statues, and vibrant mosaics. One mosaic fragment depicts a dolphin, a popular motif in Roman bath decor. These artistic embellishments, along with the grand scale of the complex, attest to Odessos‘ prosperity and importance within the Roman Empire.
The Baths of Caracalla
As impressive as the Varna baths are, they are dwarfed by the awe-inspiring Baths of Caracalla in Rome. Built a century later during the reign of Emperor Caracalla (r. 211-217), this colossal complex covered a staggering 25 hectares (62 acres) and could accommodate up to 1,600 bathers at a time. It was the second largest bath complex in ancient Rome, surpassed only by the Baths of Diocletian.
The central bathing block of the Baths of Caracalla alone measured 228 meters (750 feet) long by 116 meters (380 feet) wide, an area larger than St. Peter‘s Basilica. This main building featured the usual progression of bathing rooms, but on an immense scale. The frigidarium, for example, was a massive 58 meters (190 feet) long, covered by three groin vaults each 35 meters (115 feet) high. The caldarium had a diameter of 35 meters (115 feet), while the tepidarium spanned 60 meters (197 feet).
But the baths were much more than just a place to wash. They were a veritable leisure complex, with amenities that would put modern-day spas and fitness centers to shame. In addition to the bathing rooms, the complex boasted:
- Two palaestrae (exercise yards)
- Two libraries (one Greek, one Latin)
- Gardens with fountains and sculptures
- A swimming pool (natatio)
- Shops and restaurants
- Art galleries and museums
The baths were lavishly decorated with hundreds of statues, mosaics, and frescoes. Many of these artworks depicted mythological scenes, athletes, and marine life, creating a visually stimulating and immersive environment. The floors and walls were clad in exotic marble sourced from quarries across the empire, from Greece and Egypt to Turkey and Tunisia.
Like the Varna baths, the Baths of Caracalla utilized a state-of-the-art hypocaust system to heat the vast interior spaces. Dozens of furnaces burned wood and coal to heat water in large lead tanks, which was then distributed through a network of lead pipes to the various pools and baths. The hypocaust also heated the floors and walls, ensuring a comfortable temperature even in the frigidarium.
The construction of the baths was a massive undertaking that required advanced engineering skills and a vast workforce. It‘s estimated that the project employed around 9,000 workers per day and took 5-6 years to complete. The total cost is unknown, but it undoubtedly ran into the millions of denarii.
The Baths of Caracalla remained in use for over three centuries, until the Ostrogoths cut off the aqueducts during the siege of Rome in 537 AD. Even after falling into disrepair, the ruins continued to inspire awe and admiration. As the poet Shelley wrote in the early 19th century: "Never was any desolation more sublime and lovely."
The Significance of Roman Baths
The Varna baths and the Baths of Caracalla are just two examples of the many monumental bath complexes that dotted the Roman Empire at its height. Other notable examples include the Baths of Diocletian in Rome, the Baths of Cluny in Paris, and the Baths of Trajan in Rome. So why did the Romans invest so much time, effort, and resources into building these grand public baths?
For one, the baths played a crucial role in maintaining public health and hygiene. In a pre-modern world without running water or sewage systems, the baths provided a place for people to wash themselves and their clothes regularly. This helped to prevent the spread of disease and keep the population healthy.
But the baths were much more than just a place to get clean. They were also important centers of social and cultural life. People from all classes and walks of life mingled freely in the baths, from slaves and freedmen to the wealthy elite. They were places to see and be seen, to network and make business deals, to flirt and gossip.
The baths also served as cultural centers, with libraries, lecture halls, and art galleries that exposed visitors to the latest ideas and trends. Poets and philosophers gave readings and discourses, while artists and sculptors displayed their latest creations. In this way, the baths helped to spread knowledge and culture throughout the empire.
From a political perspective, the baths were also a way for emperors to showcase their power and generosity. By providing free or low-cost access to these luxurious facilities, emperors could earn the loyalty and goodwill of the people. The grandeur and scale of the baths also served as a testament to the wealth and might of the empire itself.
Visiting the Baths Today
Today, the remains of the Varna Roman Baths and the Baths of Caracalla are open to the public as archaeological sites and museums. At Varna, visitors can explore the well-preserved ruins of the bathing rooms, including the impressive remains of the hypocaust system. Informative signs and displays help to bring the baths to life and explain their historical and cultural significance.
The Baths of Caracalla, meanwhile, are a popular tourist attraction in Rome, drawing hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. While much of the complex is in ruins, enough remains to give a sense of its incredible scale and grandeur. Highlights include the towering walls and vaulted ceilings of the frigidarium and caldarium, as well as the remains of the mosaics and statues that once adorned the baths.
Visitors to both sites should wear comfortable shoes and be prepared for a fair amount of walking. At Varna, the baths are located in the heart of the city, just a short walk from the main pedestrian street. Admission is 10 lev (about €5) for adults, with discounts for students and children.
At the Baths of Caracalla, the site is located a bit outside the city center, but is easily accessible by metro (Circo Massimo station) or bus (118 or 160). Admission is €11 for adults, with discounts for students, children, and seniors. Guided tours are available in several languages for an additional fee.
Conclusion
The Varna Roman Baths and the Baths of Caracalla are two of the most impressive and well-preserved examples of ancient Roman bath complexes. They offer a fascinating glimpse into the social, cultural, and architectural world of the Roman Empire at its height.
But these baths are more than just historical curiosities. They are a testament to the ingenuity, ambition, and grandeur of one of the greatest civilizations in human history. They remind us of a time when public spaces were designed not just for utility, but for beauty, luxury, and social interaction.
In a world where public spaces are increasingly privatized and commercialized, the Roman baths stand as an enduring example of what is possible when a society prioritizes the common good. They invite us to imagine a world where everyone has access to clean water, healthy recreation, and cultural enrichment, regardless of their social status or income.
As we marvel at the scale and splendor of these ancient baths, let us also reflect on what we can learn from them about building a more just, equitable, and humane society. The Roman baths may be ruins, but their legacy endures as a challenge and an inspiration for us all.
