John Adams was a central figure in the founding of the United States, playing a key role in the American Revolution and serving as the new nation‘s first Vice President and second President. But was Adams a Patriot who fought for American independence, or a Loyalist faithful to the British crown? Let‘s examine Adams‘ life and legacy to find the answer.
Early Life and Road to Revolution
John Adams was born on October 30, 1735 in Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, the eldest son of John Adams Sr., a farmer and cobbler, and Susanna Boylston Adams. Young John enjoyed a privileged upbringing. His father earned enough to send him to a prep school and then Harvard College, where he excelled, graduating in 1755 at age 20.
After teaching school for a few years, Adams decided to become a lawyer, studying under prominent Massachusetts attorney James Putnam. He was admitted to the bar in 1758 and began practicing law in Braintree. In 1764, he married Abigail Smith, the daughter of a minister. The couple would have five children, including future president John Quincy Adams.
As tensions rose between the American colonies and Britain in the 1760s, Adams spoke out against unpopular British policies:
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In 1765, he published an essay called "A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law" denouncing the Stamp Act, which required a tax on all paper documents in the colonies. "It seems very manifest from the Stamp Act itself, that a design is form‘d to strip us in a great measure of the means of knowledge, by loading the Press, the Colleges, and even an Almanack and a News-Paper, with restraints and duties," Adams warned.
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In 1768, Adams signed a non-importation agreement to boycott British goods to protest the Townshend Acts, which imposed new taxes on paper, glass, paint, and tea imported by the colonies.
Adams continued to be a leading voice of opposition to British rule in Massachusetts. However, he surprised many by defending the British soldiers charged with murder for firing on a mob during the Boston Massacre of 1770. Arguing that the soldiers had a right to defend themselves from the threatening crowd, Adams won acquittals for six of the eight defendants. Though his defense was unpopular, Adams earned respect for upholding the rule of law.
Declaring Independence and Fighting for Freedom
Key Dates in John Adams‘ Role in the American Revolution
1774 - Serves as delegate to First Continental Congress
1775 - Nominates George Washington as commander-in-chief of Continental Army
1776 - Chooses Thomas Jefferson to draft Declaration of Independence
1777 - Helps draft Model Treaty to gain French support
1779 - Appointed Minister to France
1780 - Drafts Massachusetts Constitution
1783 - Negotiates Treaty of Paris ending Revolutionary WarAs the conflict between the colonies and Britain escalated, Adams was elected as a delegate from Massachusetts to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1774. There, he emerged as a leader of the Patriot faction that opposed reconciliation with Britain and instead sought full independence.
At the Second Continental Congress, Adams was one of the first to argue for complete separation from Britain. In a speech on May 10, 1776, he declared, "Objects of the most stupendous magnitude… measures in which the lives and liberties of millions, born and unborn are most essentially interested, are now before us. We are in the midst of revolution, the most complete, unexpected, and remarkable of any in the history of the world."
On June 11, Congress appointed Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman to a committee to draft a formal declaration of independence. Adams chose Jefferson to write the initial draft, both because of the Virginian‘s eloquence and to enlist his state‘s support for independence. After a few edits by the committee and Congress itself, the Declaration of Independence was ratified on July 4, 1776.
Behind the scenes, Adams worked tirelessly to support the Revolutionary cause. During his tenure in Congress from 1774-1777, he served on an incredible 90 committees and chaired 25. As head of the Board of War and Ordnance, Adams oversaw the Continental Army and Navy. He drafted the Plan of Treaties, which offered trade concessions to France and Spain in exchange for their support against Britain, and helped persuade the Netherlands to provide loans to the cash-strapped Continental Congress.
In 1779, Adams sailed to Paris to join Benjamin Franklin in negotiating an alliance with France. Adams played a key role in securing the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, in which France agreed to provide soldiers, supplies, and money to aid the American war effort. Adams also helped negotiate the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War and recognized American independence.
Service in the Early Republic
After the war, Adams joined Franklin and John Jay in securing commercial treaties with European powers. In 1785, he was appointed the first U.S. Ambassador to Britain, a difficult job given the hostility between the two nations. "I shall have a laborious task here," Adams wrote, "where appearances are to be kept up, and this nation is to be made to understand that we are their equal."
Returning to Massachusetts, Adams attended the 1787 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. When the Constitution was sent to the states to be ratified, Adams wrote a series of essays defending the document, later published as "A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America."
In 1788, Adams was elected the nation‘s first Vice President under George Washington. During his two terms, Adams cast a record 31 tie-breaking votes in the Senate. He found the job "the most insignificant Office that ever the Invention of Man contrived or his Imagination conceived."
Presidency and Quasi-War with France
After George Washington declined to run for a third term, Adams ran for president in 1796. In a bitter campaign against Thomas Jefferson, Adams eked out a narrow victory, receiving 71 electoral votes to Jefferson‘s 68. Per the Constitution, Jefferson became Adams‘ Vice President.
As President, Adams faced a crisis in relations with France. The French, incensed by the Jay Treaty, which they saw as an American tilt toward Britain, began harassing U.S. shipping and refusing to receive American envoys. Seeking to avoid war, Adams sent a delegation to Paris, but the French Directory demanded large bribes before even agreeing to negotiations. The American people were outraged when Adams made the "XYZ Affair" public.
In the ensuing Quasi-War, an undeclared naval conflict, the U.S. and France fought a series of battles in the Caribbean. Adams built up the Navy but kept the nation out of a full-scale war. He declared a day of "Public Humiliation, Fasting and Prayer" and urged citizens to express "their abhorrence of political connections with any foreign power."
To counter domestic criticism, Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. The Alien Acts made it harder for immigrants to become citizens, while the Sedition Act criminalized false statements critical of the government. Though Adams justified the measures as necessary for national security, they proved hugely unpopular as a clampdown on civil liberties. Only 10 people were convicted under the Sedition Act, but it helped turn public opinion against Adams and the Federalists.
Economic Indicators During John Adams‘ Presidency (1797-1801)
Year GDP (billions) Inflation Rate Unemployment Rate
1797 $0.38 12.6% N/A
1798 $0.43 4.3% N/A
1799 $0.44 -1.2% N/A
1800 $0.48 1.0% N/ASource: Louis Johnston and Samuel H. Williamson, "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" MeasuringWorth, 2023.
Damaged by the Quasi-War and Alien and Sedition Acts controversies, Adams lost the bitter 1800 presidential election to Jefferson. The Federalist-controlled Congress and lame-duck Adams passed the Judiciary Act of 1801, which created new courts and judgeships staffed with Federalist appointees, including the infamous "midnight judges" named right before Adams left office.
Retirement, Reconciliation, and Legacy
After losing to Jefferson, Adams retired to his farm in Quincy. Depressed and angered by his defeat, he skipped Jefferson‘s inauguration, setting an unfortunate precedent that would not be repeated until Andrew Johnson boycotted Ulysses S. Grant‘s 1869 inauguration.
In retirement, Adams worked on his farm, read extensively, and resumed writing. Prodded by their mutual friend Benjamin Rush, Adams and Jefferson revived their friendship and began a prolific correspondence. Between 1812 and 1826, they exchanged 158 letters touching on politics, philosophy, religion, and their respective roles in the nation‘s founding.
On July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, both Adams and Jefferson passed away. According to legend, Adams‘ last words were "Thomas Jefferson survives," unaware that his old friend and rival had died a few hours earlier.
So was John Adams a Patriot or a Loyalist? The evidence clearly shows that Adams was an indispensable leader of the Patriot cause and the fight for American independence:
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Through his influential writings and political activism, Adams was a key voice in rallying opposition to British policies like the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts.
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As a delegate to the Continental Congress, Adams pushed for independence, chose Jefferson to write the Declaration of Independence, and worked to support the Revolutionary War effort.
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Adams negotiated key treaties gaining French support and ending the war, and he helped draft the Massachusetts Constitution, a model for other states.
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As the nation‘s first Vice President and second President, Adams solidified many of the early republic‘s diplomatic and economic policies.
While Adams did defend the British soldiers charged for the Boston Massacre, he did so out of principle and still worked to secure American rights and liberties. And though the Alien and Sedition Acts raised valid concerns about civil liberties, they did not negate Adams‘ decades of service in establishing the United States.
Political scientist and historian Richard Hofstadter ranked Adams as one of the six greatest presidents in American history, praising him as "a man of great political courage" who "dedicated his life to the nation." Though often overshadowed by Washington and Jefferson, Adams played a pivotal role in founding and leading the United States as one of its most important Patriot statesmen.
