Napoleon Bonaparte, the brilliant military commander who conquered much of Europe in the early 19th century, met an inglorious end – not on the battlefield, but in lonely exile on the remote island of Saint Helena. The story of Napoleon‘s two exiles and his untimely death at age 51 is a sad final chapter in the life of one of history‘s most remarkable and controversial figures.
From Emperor to Exile
At the height of his power, Napoleon ruled over a vast French Empire that spanned from Spain to Poland. But a disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, followed by a series of military defeats, led to his downfall. In April 1814, after the Allied armies had captured Paris, Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne and accept exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba.
The terms of Napoleon‘s first exile were relatively lenient. He was allowed to keep his title of Emperor and was given sovereignty over Elba, along with a garrison of 400 men and a navy of six ships. However, the Allies also imposed strict limitations on Napoleon‘s movements and communications, aiming to prevent him from interfering in European affairs.[^1]
Exile on Elba proved short-lived. On February 26, 1815, after less than a year on the island, Napoleon escaped with a small group of loyal followers and landed in France, beginning his famous "Hundred Days" campaign to regain power. French forces rallied to his side, and he marched triumphantly into Paris on March 20, forcing King Louis XVIII to flee.[^2]
Napoleon‘s return sent shockwaves across Europe and galvanized the Allied powers into action. They declared Napoleon an outlaw and began mobilizing their armies to defeat him once and for all. Napoleon raised a new army of around 280,000 men and marched north to confront the Allies in Belgium.[^3]
On June 18, 1815, Napoleon met his final defeat at the hands of the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo. The French army, though fighting bravely, was ultimately overwhelmed by the combined Allied forces, which numbered over 350,000 men.[^4] Napoleon was forced to abdicate for a second time on June 22 and surrendered to the British a few weeks later.
Exiled to the "South Atlantic Jail"
After Waterloo, the victorious Allies were determined to prevent Napoleon from ever again disrupting the peace of Europe. Harsher terms were needed than the previous exile to Elba. The British suggested the remote island of Saint Helena as a suitable destination, and the other Allied powers agreed.
Located in the South Atlantic some 1,200 miles from the nearest land, Saint Helena was about as far from Europe as Napoleon could be sent. Often called "the South Atlantic jail" due to its isolation, the small volcanic island offered no chance for escape. Napoleon protested bitterly, famously declaring, "I would prefer death to Saint Helena," but given no choice, he had to accept his fate.[^5]
On August 8, 1815, Napoleon boarded the British ship HMS Northumberland for the long voyage to Saint Helena. He arrived at his new home on October 15, where he would remain until his death nearly six years later.[^6] The British kept Napoleon under close guard on the island, with a garrison of 2,800 men and a network of watchposts and signal stations to monitor his movements.[^7]
Life in exile on Saint Helena was a far cry from the grandeur of the French court. Napoleon was housed in the damp, rat-infested Longwood House, a dilapidated mansion that he described as "a wretched hovel, a few feet square, in the most dismal country in the world."[^8] He was allowed to retain a small entourage of loyal followers, including his valet Louis Marchand and the Count de Las Cases, who served as his secretary and wrote a famous memoir of their time together on the island.[^9]
Despite the restrictions placed on him, Napoleon tried to maintain a semblance of his former imperial lifestyle. He took daily rides around the island, dictated his memoirs, and entertained occasional visitors, including the young English aristocrat Lord Holland and the Austrian envoy Baron von Stürmer.[^10] However, he also suffered from boredom, loneliness, and declining health, exacerbated by the damp climate and his sedentary lifestyle.
Decline and Death
In his final years on Saint Helena, Napoleon‘s physical and mental health declined sharply. He suffered from chronic stomach pains, headaches, and swollen legs, and became increasingly withdrawn and irritable. His personal physician, Dr. Francesco Antommarchi, diagnosed him with gastric cancer in early 1821, though some historians have suggested that he may have been slowly poisoned by arsenic from the toxic wallpaper at Longwood House.[^11]
Napoleon‘s condition worsened throughout April 1821, and he began to prepare for his death. He dictated his will, leaving most of his possessions to his son, the Duke of Reichstadt, and his loyal followers. He also requested that his body be buried on the banks of the Seine in Paris, "among the French people whom I have loved so much."[^12]
On May 5, 1821, at 5:49 pm, Napoleon died at the age of 51. His last words, according to some accounts, were "France, the Army, head of the Army, Joséphine," though others claim that he simply said "Mon Dieu" (my God) before expiring.[^13]
Napoleon‘s death caused an outpouring of grief among his supporters in France and around the world. A death mask was made of his face, and his body was laid out in state for two days before being buried in a simple grave in the Sane Valley on Saint Helena.[^14]
In 1840, King Louis Philippe of France, seeking to bolster his own legitimacy by associating himself with Napoleon‘s legacy, arranged for the former emperor‘s remains to be returned to Paris. In a grand state funeral on December 15, attended by over a million people, Napoleon‘s body was transported through the streets of Paris in a magnificent procession and laid to rest under the dome of the Invalides, where it remains today.[^15]
Legacy and Controversies
Napoleon‘s two exiles and his premature death ensured the end of his empire and his dream of European domination. By isolating Napoleon on remote islands, his enemies aimed to strip him of his power and influence and turn him into a forlorn and forgotten figure.
However, Napoleon‘s legacy proved more enduring than his enemies had hoped. His military genius, his legal and administrative reforms, and his charismatic leadership continue to fascinate and inspire people around the world. At the same time, his record of warfare, conquest, and autocratic rule remains highly controversial, with some seeing him as a tyrant and others as a visionary modernizer.[^16]
The circumstances of Napoleon‘s death have also been the subject of much debate and speculation. The official cause of death was stomach cancer, but some historians have argued that Napoleon may have been poisoned, either deliberately or accidentally. In the 1960s, tests on samples of Napoleon‘s hair revealed high levels of arsenic, leading to theories that he may have been poisoned by his British jailers or by the toxic wallpaper at Longwood House.[^17]
However, more recent studies have cast doubt on the arsenic poisoning theory, suggesting that the high levels of arsenic in Napoleon‘s hair may have been due to environmental factors or to the use of arsenic-based medicines at the time. Most historians now accept that Napoleon likely died of natural causes, though the exact nature of his illness remains a matter of debate.[^18]
Regardless of the cause of his death, there is no denying the tragic and poignant nature of Napoleon‘s final years. The once-mighty emperor, who had conquered most of Europe and changed the course of history, ended his life in exile, far from his homeland and his loved ones. His story serves as a reminder of the fleeting nature of power and the ultimate fate that awaits even the greatest of leaders.
[^1]: McLynn, Frank. Napoleon: A Biography. New York: Arcade Publishing, 2002, pp. 583-584.[^2]: Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life. New York: Viking, 2014, pp. 758-759.
[^3]: Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Macmillan, 1966, p. 1015.
[^4]: Barbero, Alessandro. The Battle: A New History of Waterloo. New York: Walker & Company, 2005, p. 412.
[^5]: Deutsch, Harold C. "Napoleon at St. Helena." The Historian 10, no. 1 (1947): 49-64, p. 51.
[^6]: Deutsch, p. 52.
[^7]: Blackburn, Julia. The Emperor‘s Last Island: A Journey to St. Helena. New York: Pantheon Books, 1991, p. 82.
[^8]: Deutsch, p. 54.
[^9]: Markham, Felix. Napoleon. New York: New American Library, 1963, p. 275.
[^10]: Blackburn, pp. 115-116.
[^11]: Weider, Ben, and David Hapgood. The Murder of Napoleon. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1982, pp. 180-181.
[^12]: McLynn, p. 657.
[^13]: Markham, p. 287.
[^14]: Blackburn, p. 236.
[^15]: Alexander, R. S. Napoleon. London: Arnold, 2001, pp. 226-227.
[^16]: Lyons, Martyn. Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution. New York: St. Martin‘s Press, 1994, pp. 302-303.
[^17]: Weider and Hapgood, pp. 183-184.
[^18]: Cullen, William R. "Arsenic and Napoleon‘s Wallpaper." Journal of Chemical Education 87, no. 11 (2010): 1141-1144, p. 1144.
| Event | Date |
|---|---|
| Napoleon exiled to Elba | April 11, 1814 |
| Napoleon escapes from Elba | February 26, 1815 |
| Napoleon enters Paris, beginning "Hundred Days" | March 20, 1815 |
| Battle of Waterloo | June 18, 1815 |
| Napoleon exiled to Saint Helena | August 8, 1815 |
| Napoleon arrives on Saint Helena | October 15, 1815 |
| Napoleon dies on Saint Helena | May 5, 1821 |
| Napoleon‘s remains returned to Paris | December 15, 1840 |
Table 1: Timeline of key events in Napoleon‘s exile and death[^19] [^19]: Roberts, pp. xxv-xxvi.
As this expanded article demonstrates, the story of Napoleon‘s exile and death is a complex and multifaceted one, full of tragedy, intrigue, and enduring controversies. By examining this final chapter of Napoleon‘s life in greater depth, we can gain a richer understanding of his character, his legacy, and the political and cultural forces that shaped his era. While Napoleon‘s ultimate fate was one of isolation and defeat, his impact on history remains as profound and far-reaching as ever.
