Throughout the long history of ancient Egypt, women held a level of power and prestige unmatched in most other ancient civilizations. The Egyptians believed their queens and priestesses could serve as intermediaries between the gods and the earthly realm. Royal women were thought to have an innate right to rule, and the role of pharaoh itself was not exclusively male. In fact, the ancient Egyptian word for sovereign, nesw, was actually gender neutral.
Over the 3,000 years of dynastic rule in Egypt, at least 7 women are believed to have held the full titles and powers of a ruling pharaoh. Many others wielded significant authority as queens and regents. These female rulers were exceptional women who overcame the patriarchal constraints of their society to safeguard the country they governed. Through military prowess, ambitious building projects, and diplomatic finesse, they made an indelible mark on Egyptian civilization.
Women in Ancient Egyptian Society and Religion
To understand how women rose to the pinnacle of power in ancient Egypt, it‘s important to examine their roles in everyday society and religion. Unlike the women of ancient Greece or Rome, Egyptian women held the same legal and economic rights as men. They could own land, resolve legal settlements, and were even equal in marriage. Egyptian women "were able to rule the country and in general, ancient Egypt was probably one of the best places to be born female in the ancient world," explains Egyptology professor Melinda Hartwig.
In the realm of religion, some of ancient Egypt‘s most powerful deities were female. Isis, the mother goddess whose love resurrected her husband Osiris and gave birth to the god Horus, was deeply revered. Hathor, the goddess of love, beauty, music and fertility, was honored in many temples. The Egyptians believed the pharaoh was the living embodiment of Horus and a son of Ra, the sun god. So by extension, the women who birthed pharaohs were seen as divine vessels themselves.
Queen Merneith (c. 3200-2900 BC)
The first woman believed to have ruled ancient Egypt was Merneith, during the Early Dynastic Period. Merneith was the daughter of Djer, wife of Djet, and mother of Den, all pharaohs of the First Dynasty. Egyptologists have long debated whether Merneith was herself a ruling pharaoh or simply a regent for her young son Den.
Evidence of Merneith‘s power can be found in her tomb at Abydos, the necropolis of the early kings. Her burial chamber is built on a scale comparable to the pharaohs, with 41 subsidiary graves for servants to accompany her to the afterlife. Merneith‘s name is also included in a list of First Dynasty kings, written on an ivory label in Den‘s tomb. As Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson argues: "The fact that her tomb at Abydos is of similar size and orientation to those of the kings implies that her status was akin to that of a ruler."
If Merneith was indeed a ruling pharaoh as this evidence suggests, she would be the first female monarch we know of in all of history. Leaning more towards viewing her as a regent, historian Kara Cooney still emphasizes Merneith‘s influence: "She was the first queen of Egypt to rule as a king before handing power over to her son, and would not be the last."
Queen Sobekneferu (r. 1806–1802 BC)
The first indisputably female ruler of Egypt was Queen Sobekneferu of the 12th Dynasty. She assumed the throne after the death of her brother Amenemhat IV, becoming the first royal woman to adopt full pharaonic titles and regalia. Contemporary artifacts such as statues and seals depict Sobekneferu as every inch the female Horus.
In one relief, she is shown dressed in a warrior‘s kilt, smiting her enemies with a mace. An inscription on a statue found at the Hyksos capital of Avaris calls her "the daughter of Re, beloved of the gods." Near the entrance to Sobekneferu‘s pyramid complex is a red granite slab engraved with feminine versions of the king‘s usual titles: "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Beloved of the Two Lands, Daughter of Re."
Unfortunately, Sobekneferu‘s reign lasted only about 4 years until her death around 1802 BC. In that brief time, she still managed to contribute to her father‘s funeral monuments, build her own pyramid complex at Hawara, and launch military campaigns into Nubia. Her rule brought the 12th Dynasty to a close and ushered in the turbulent Second Intermediate Period.
Hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 BC)
The most famous and successful female pharaoh was undoubtedly Hatshepsut of the 18th Dynasty. The daughter of the warrior king Thutmose I, Hatshepsut was married to her half-brother Thutmose II. When he died after a short reign, Hatshepsut became regent for the child pharaoh Thutmose III. By the seventh year, Hatshepsut had declared herself pharaoh and adopted the full titles and regalia of kingship.
To emphasize her legitimacy, Hatshepsut commissioned art and inscriptions depicting her as a male king. Reliefs show her wearing the traditional royal kilt and crown, with a masculine physique and even the pharaoh‘s false beard. In one famous inscription, Hatshepsut recounts how the god Amun visited her mother and conceived her as a divine child. These propagandistic efforts worked to solidify Hatshepsut‘s authority; she ruled largely unchallenged for over 20 prosperous years.
Hatshepsut‘s reign was marked by the revival of Egyptian trade networks and a flourishing of the arts. She launched the famous expedition to Punt, a rich land on the Red Sea coast that brought back luxury goods like myrrh, ebony, gold, and incense trees. Hatshepsut undertook ambitious building projects throughout Egypt, most notably her magnificent mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri near Thebes.
This three-tiered complex, designed by Hatshepsut‘s steward Senenmut, featured lush gardens, intricate reliefs, and towering obelisks. As Egyptologist Kara Cooney describes it: "Deir el-Bahri‘s multiplying courtyards, ramps, and pillars painted an elegant portrait of the female king and her power."
Nefertiti (c. 1370-1330 BC)
In the mid-14th century BC, a royal woman rose to become one of the most powerful and influential queens of ancient Egypt. Nefertiti, whose name means "a beautiful woman has come," was the chief wife of the radical pharaoh Akhenaten. Together, they ushered in the Amarna Period, a time of revolutionary change in Egyptian art, culture, and religion.
Akhenaten and Nefertiti spearheaded the first known effort to impose monotheism on the Egyptians, replacing the traditional pantheon with worship of a single sun deity, the Aten. They built an entirely new capital city called Akhetaten, known today as Amarna. Here, the royal couple was depicted in a strikingly intimate and naturalistic new art style. The famous bust of Nefertiti showcases the exaggerated features and serpentine neck typical of Amarna art.
The Amarna Letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence found at Akhetaten, shows that foreign rulers viewed Nefertiti as a political figure in her own right. She is mentioned by name in several letters, with one Babylonian king going so far as to wish "Great Queen Nefertiti" well.
After Akhenaten‘s death, Nefertiti may have ruled independently as pharaoh. A female ruler using the name Neferneferuaten is referenced in inscriptions from the late Amarna Period. Some Egyptologists believe this was Nefertiti, finally adopting the full regalia of a king. Supporting this theory, images of Nefertiti smiting her enemies have been found, a pose usually reserved for the pharaoh.
Nefertiti‘s ultimate fate remains unknown, but her legacy as a powerful queen at the center of a religious revolution has stood the test of time. Today, Nefertiti has become a global icon of feminine beauty and power, a testament to her enduring influence.
Cleopatra VII (r. 51-30 BC)
The last ruler of ancient Egypt was also one of its most famous: Cleopatra VII. Although Cleopatra was a member of the Greek-Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty, she embraced her role as an Egyptian queen. Well-educated and intelligent, Cleopatra could speak several languages, including her native Greek and the Egyptian tongue. She styled herself as the living embodiment of the goddess Isis.
Cleopatra used her political savvy to navigate the treacherous waters of a declining kingdom. She forged an alliance with Julius Caesar to defeat her brother and co-ruler Ptolemy XIII in a civil war. Caesar helped Cleopatra consolidate power in Egypt and fathered her son Caesarion. After Caesar‘s assassination in 44 BC, Cleopatra aligned with his right-hand man Mark Antony.
The political and romantic partnership between Cleopatra and Mark Antony has become the stuff of legend, inspiring countless works of art and literature across the centuries. The Roman historian Plutarch provides a vivid description of their first encounter, with Cleopatra arriving bedecked in gold on a barge with purple sails.
Together, Antony and Cleopatra formed the Donations of Alexandria, an agreement to divide up Rome‘s eastern territories amongst Cleopatra‘s children. It was a direct threat to Octavian, Caesar‘s heir and Antony‘s rival. The clash between Cleopatra and Antony‘s forces and Octavian‘s navy would unfold in the fateful Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Octavian emerged victorious, and Antony and Cleopatra retreated to Alexandria.
In 30 BC, with Octavian‘s forces closing in on Egypt, the couple took their own lives. Cleopatra, according to ancient sources, died by way of an asp, a venomous snake and potent symbol of divine royalty. With Cleopatra‘s death, the Ptolemaic dynasty came to an end and Egypt became a province of the newly-formed Roman Empire.
Cleopatra was an object of fascination for ancient historians like Plutarch, Dio Cassius, and Suetonius, who spread tales of her seductive charms and quick wit. Today, she endures as a captivating figure, portrayed on screen by the likes of Elizabeth Taylor and Vivien Leigh. But the real Cleopatra was a canny stateswoman determined to preserve her dynasty and protect Egypt‘s independence in the face of Roman domination.
Legacy of Ancient Egypt‘s Female Rulers
The female pharaohs and queens of ancient Egypt have left an indelible mark on history. Their stories speak to the power and potential of women to lead nations, command armies, and shape the course of civilization. In a world where women were all too often seen as inferior to men, these extraordinary Egyptian women ruled the most powerful and advanced society of the ancient world.
The female rulers of Egypt proved that women could be more than wives, mothers and daughters; they could be sovereigns, warriors, builders and religious leaders. Looking back on their lives and accomplishments, it becomes clear that ancient Egypt was a uniquely favorable environment for ambitious royal women.
The prominence of goddesses in Egyptian mythology, the relative equality of women in society, and the Egyptians‘ belief in the divine right of royal women to rule all enabled the rise of female kings. Perhaps Hatshepsut‘s unprecedented depiction of herself as a male pharaoh best encapsulates the attitude of these trailblazing leaders. As Egyptologist Kara Cooney puts it, "She did not apologize for taking the throne, and insisted on her right to rule based on her royal blood."
Today, the notion of a woman ruling an entire kingdom may not seem so extraordinary, but it certainly was in the ancient world. The female pharaohs of Egypt set a powerful precedent for the ages. They showed that women could hold the highest political and religious offices, shape art and culture, and build everlasting monuments to their greatness. In our 21st century world, where the fight for women‘s equality continues, these remarkable ancient women still have much to teach us.
