The Arch of Constantine is one of the most iconic and impressive surviving monuments of ancient Rome. Built in the early 4th century AD, this triumphal arch has stood the test of time, bearing witness to the rise and fall of empires over the last 1,700 years. As a historian, I find the arch to be a fascinating lens through which to examine a pivotal period in Roman and world history – the reign of Constantine the Great.
Historical Background: The Battle of Milvian Bridge
To fully appreciate the significance of the Arch of Constantine, we must first understand the historical context in which it was built. The year was 312 AD, and the Roman Empire was in the midst of a tumultuous power struggle. The current emperor, Maxentius, was a rival of Constantine, the son of the former emperor Constantius Chlorus. The two leaders and their armies met in a decisive battle at the Milvian Bridge in Rome.
According to ancient sources like Eusebius and Lactantius, Constantine had a vision or dream before the battle in which he was told to paint the Christian symbol of the Chi-Rho on his soldiers‘ shields. Constantine obeyed the omen and went on to defeat Maxentius, who drowned in the Tiber River when his makeshift bridge collapsed. This victory propelled Constantine to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire and marked a major turning point for Christianity.
As historian Charles Matson Odahl writes in his book Constantine and the Christian Empire:
The Battle of the Milvian Bridge is one of the most decisive and significant military engagements in world history. It determined the ultimate success of Constantine and the eventual triumph of Christianity in the Roman Empire and beyond.
Building the Arch: A Monument to Victory
To commemorate his momentous victory and to celebrate a decade of his reign, Constantine commissioned the construction of a massive triumphal arch in 315 AD. The arch was strategically located along the parade route of the Roman triumphs, where victorious generals and emperors would ride in a procession to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.
The Arch of Constantine is an architectural marvel, standing 21 meters (69 feet) tall, 25.9 meters (85 feet) wide, and 7.4 meters (24 feet) deep. It features three main archways, with the central one being the largest at 11.5 meters (37.7 feet) high and 6.5 meters (21.3 feet) wide. The arch is constructed from large blocks of white marble and is richly decorated with reliefs, sculpture, and inscriptions.
One unique aspect of the Arch of Constantine is that much of its decorative elements were actually taken from earlier monuments dedicated to emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. This "spoliation" or repurposing of older artwork was a common practice in Late Antiquity, often used to save time and expense. However, it also had symbolic meaning. As historian Elizabeth Marlowe explains:
By reusing reliefs from monuments to "good emperors" of the past, Constantine‘s arch assimilated him into an established lineage of imperial power, constructing him as the latest in a line of triumphant rulers stretching back to the height of the empire.
The Inscription: Dedication to Constantine
One of the most striking features of the Arch of Constantine is the large inscription on both faces of the attic above the central archway. The inscription, originally inlaid with bronze letters, reads:
IMP · CAES · FL · CONSTANTINO · MAXIMO · P · F · AVGUSTO · S · P · Q · R · QVOD · INSTINCTV · DIVINITATIS · MENTIS · MAGNITVDINE · CVM · EXERCITV · SVO · TAM · DE · TYRANNO · QVAM · DE · OMNI · EIVS · FACTIONE · VNO · TEMPORE · IVSTIS · REM-PVBLICAM · VLTVS · EST · ARMIS · ARCVM · TRIVMPHIS · INSIGNEM · DICAVIT
Translated to English:
To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantine, the Greatest, Pius, Felix, Augustus: inspired by (a) divinity, in the greatness of his mind, he used his army to save the state by the just force of arms from a tyrant on the one hand and every kind of factionalism on the other; therefore the Senate and the People of Rome have dedicated this exceptional arch to his triumphs.
This inscription is significant for several reasons. First, it clearly states the official purpose of the arch – to honor Constantine as a victorious leader who saved Rome from the "tyrant" Maxentius and unified the empire. Second, the phrase "instinctu divinitatis" or "inspired by a divinity" is an interesting early example of official recognition of divine intervention in imperial affairs. While it does not explicitly reference Christianity, it is possible this was a veiled allusion to Constantine‘s reported vision before the battle.
Symbolism and Style: The Aesthetics of Empire
In addition to its historical and political significance, the Arch of Constantine is also notable for its artistic style and symbolism. The arch represents a transitional moment between the Classical style of earlier imperial monuments and the more abstract, stylized art of the later empire and early Christian period.
The repurposed reliefs from older monuments depict scenes of imperial conquest, sacrifice, and hunting – all standard themes meant to glorify the power and piety of the emperor. In contrast, the sculptures created specifically for Constantine‘s arch have a simpler, more static style with frontally facing figures and less naturalism and depth.
Art historian Richard Brilliant describes the newer frieze panels on the arch as showing "a concern for abstract symbolism and ceremonial impressiveness rather than for concrete historicity and human drama." This shift in artistic priorities reflected the changing nature of the empire itself, as individual emperors became more distant and authoritarian figures.
The arch also incorporates several symbolic motifs that would become hallmarks of early Christian and Byzantine art. For example, the winged Victories or Nikes in the spandrels of the arch hold military standards that resemble Christian crosses. And the image of a hand reaching down from the heavens to crown Constantine with a laurel wreath is an early example of the manus dei or "hand of God" motif.
The Arch Through History: Survival and Influence
Over the centuries, the Arch of Constantine has endured as one of the most recognizable and iconic monuments of ancient Rome. Its location near the Colosseum and the Roman Forum has made it a popular attraction for tourists and scholars alike.
The arch has undergone several restoration and conservation efforts over the years to repair damage from earthquakes, pollution, and the ravages of time. Major projects were undertaken in the 18th century by Pope Clement XII and in the 1990s in preparation for the Great Jubilee of 2000.
Archaeologists and historians continue to study the Arch of Constantine to learn more about its construction, decoration, and historical context. Recent research has shed new light on the identities of the "Great Trajanic Frieze" figures and the arch‘s role in shaping Constantine‘s imperial image and legacy.
Beyond its physical presence in Rome, the Arch of Constantine has also had a profound influence on later monuments and architectural styles. Its form and decoration inspired many other triumphal arches built in the following centuries, such as the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, the Marble Arch in London, and the Washington Square Arch in New York City.
The arch also served as a model for other types of monumental gateways and entryways, from city gates to memorial arches to grand exposition pavilions. In many ways, it set the standard for what a powerful, imposing public monument should look like in the Western architectural tradition.
Legacy: Constantine‘s Enduring Impact
Finally, it is impossible to consider the Arch of Constantine without also reflecting on the larger legacy of the emperor himself. Constantine‘s reign marked a major turning point in Roman history, as he consolidated power, moved the capital to Constantinople, and made Christianity the favored religion of the empire.
These seismic shifts had far-reaching consequences for the development of Western and Eastern civilization, shaping everything from politics and law to art and culture for centuries to come. The Arch of Constantine stands as a tangible symbol of this pivotal moment, when an ancient pagan empire began its gradual transformation into a Christian medieval world.
In the words of historian Jonathan Bardill in his book Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age:
The Arch of Constantine is not just a monument to a single emperor or a single battle. It is a testament to the enduring power of imperial ideology and the complex interplay of politics, religion, and art in shaping our understanding of the past. It reminds us that even the most seemingly permanent institutions and beliefs can be transformed by the actions of a few key individuals at critical moments in history.
Visiting the Arch: Tips for Tourists
For modern visitors to Rome, the Arch of Constantine is a must-see attraction that offers a unique glimpse into the grandeur and complexity of the ancient world. Located just steps away from the Colosseum in the heart of the city‘s archaeological park, the arch is easily accessible and free to view from the surrounding sidewalks and streets.
To fully appreciate the arch‘s details and artistry, I recommend visiting early in the morning or later in the afternoon when the light is best for photography. Be sure to walk around the entire monument to see the reliefs and inscriptions on all sides, and don‘t miss the view through the central archway towards the Colosseum.
There are several guided tours and audio guides available that provide more in-depth information about the arch‘s history and significance. The nearby Colosseum and Roman Forum also offer additional context for understanding the arch‘s place in imperial Roman society and architecture.
Whether you are a history buff, an art lover, or simply a curious traveler, the Arch of Constantine is a remarkable sight that should not be missed on any trip to Rome. Its enduring presence is a powerful reminder of the legacy of an emperor and an empire that continue to shape our world to this day.
Conclusion: An Enduring Symbol
The Arch of Constantine is more than just a well-preserved relic of a bygone age. It is a living testament to the power of art, architecture, and ideology to shape history and memory across the centuries. Its complex symbolism and hybrid style embody the contradictions and transformations of an empire in transition, as pagan traditions gave way to Christian influences.
At the same time, the arch is a monument to the individual agency and ambition of Constantine himself, a leader who reshaped Rome in his own image and left an indelible mark on the course of Western civilization. His victories in battle and his political and religious reforms set the stage for the rise of Christendom and the eventual fall of the classical world.
Today, the Arch of Constantine stands as a reminder of the enduring human impulse to commemorate great deeds and immortalize powerful figures in stone and bronze. It invites us to reflect on the ways in which the past continues to shape our present and future, and to marvel at the ingenuity and artistry of those who came before us. As we contemplate this iconic monument, we are reminded of the words of the 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon:
The arch of Constantine still remains a melancholy proof of the decline of the arts, but the Colosseum stands a noble monument of Roman taste, and even in its decayed state, it inspires a sentiment of greatness.
In the end, the Arch of Constantine is not just a relic of a lost golden age, but a timeless symbol of the human spirit‘s resilience and creativity in the face of change and adversity. It is a reminder that even the mightiest empires and the grandest monuments are ultimately fleeting, but the ideas and values they embody can endure long after the stones have crumbled to dust. As long as we continue to study, preserve, and learn from the past, the legacy of Constantine and his arch will live on.
