The Battle of Stones River, fought from December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863, near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, was a crucial engagement in the American Civil War. Though often overshadowed by other battles, the clash at Stones River played a significant role in shaping the course of the war and boosting Union morale. This article will explore the battle in depth, examining its key figures, tactics, and lasting impact on the Civil War and American history.
Setting the Stage
In the aftermath of the Union defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862, President Abraham Lincoln was desperate for a military victory to bolster public support for the war effort. He turned to Major General William S. Rosecrans, the newly appointed commander of the Army of the Cumberland, to deliver a much-needed win.
Rosecrans, a skilled engineer and strategist, had previously served under General Ulysses S. Grant in the Western Theater. He was known for his attention to detail and his ability to organize and train his troops effectively. As he took command of the Army of the Cumberland, Rosecrans set his sights on the Confederate Army of Tennessee, led by General Braxton Bragg.
Bragg, a West Point graduate and veteran of the Mexican-American War, had a reputation for being a strict disciplinarian and a capable, if not always successful, commander. He had recently led the Army of Tennessee to a victory at the Battle of Chickamauga, but his decision to besiege the Union army at Chattanooga rather than pursue a more aggressive strategy had drawn criticism from his subordinates and the Confederate government.
As Rosecrans prepared to confront Bragg, the two armies were roughly equal in size. The Union army numbered approximately 43,000 men, while the Confederate army had around 38,000. Both commanders knew that the upcoming battle could have significant implications for the course of the war in the Western Theater.
The First Day: December 31, 1862
On the morning of December 31, Rosecrans put his plan into motion. He ordered his army to cross Stones River and advance toward Murfreesboro, where Bragg‘s army was encamped. However, Bragg had anticipated Rosecrans‘ move and had prepared his own offensive. As the Union army began its advance, Bragg launched a surprise attack on the Union right flank, led by Major General William J. Hardee.
Hardee‘s corps, consisting of two divisions under Brigadier Generals John P. McCown and Patrick R. Cleburne, struck the Union line with tremendous force. The attack caught the Union troops, particularly those under Brigadier General Richard W. Johnson, by surprise. Many of Johnson‘s men were still eating breakfast or preparing for the day when the Confederate assault began.
As the battle raged, Rosecrans rushed reinforcements to the threatened sector, including the division of Brigadier General Jefferson C. Davis. Despite heavy casualties, the Union troops managed to hold their ground, thanks in part to the determined stand of Brigadier General Philip Sheridan‘s division and the timely arrival of reinforcements.
Throughout the day, the fighting seesawed back and forth, with each side gaining and losing ground. The dense cedar thickets and rocky outcroppings of the battlefield made maneuvering difficult and added to the confusion and chaos of the battle. By nightfall, both armies were exhausted, and the fighting had reached a stalemate.
The Second Day: January 1, 1863
On January 1, both armies remained in their positions, too battered and exhausted to launch a major offensive. Sporadic fighting continued throughout the day, but neither side gained a significant advantage. Rosecrans used the brief respite to shore up his defenses and bring in additional troops, while Bragg planned for a renewed assault on the Union lines.
During this lull in the fighting, Rosecrans‘ chief of staff, Brigadier General James A. Garfield (who would later become the 20th President of the United States), proposed a bold plan. He suggested that the Union army launch a diversionary attack on the Confederate right flank, which would draw Bragg‘s attention away from the main Union force. Rosecrans approved the plan, and Brigadier General Horatio P. Van Cleve‘s division was selected to carry out the attack.
The Third Day: January 2, 1863
On the morning of January 2, Van Cleve‘s division crossed Stones River and advanced toward the Confederate right flank. The move caught Bragg by surprise, and he quickly ordered Brigadier General John C. Breckinridge‘s division to counter the threat. Breckinridge‘s men, many of whom were from Kentucky and Tennessee, were eager to prove themselves and drive the Union troops back across the river.
As Breckinridge‘s division clashed with Van Cleve‘s men, Bragg launched a massive assault on the Union left flank, hoping to take advantage of the diversion. However, Rosecrans had anticipated this move and had reinforced his left with artillery and additional troops. The Confederate attack, led by Major General Leonidas Polk‘s corps, was met with a devastating barrage of artillery and musket fire.
The fighting on the Union left was intense and bloody, with both sides suffering heavy casualties. The 21st Illinois Infantry Regiment, part of Colonel William Hazen‘s brigade, played a crucial role in repulsing the Confederate attack. The regiment, which had been posted in a small grove of trees known as the "Round Forest," held its ground against repeated assaults, earning the nickname "Hell‘s Half Acre" for the ferocity of the fighting.
Despite the determined Confederate attack, the Union left held firm, and Bragg‘s assault eventually faltered. Breckinridge‘s division, meanwhile, had been unable to dislodge Van Cleve‘s men from their position across Stones River. As the day wore on, it became clear that the Confederates had failed to achieve their objectives, and Bragg reluctantly ordered a retreat back to Tullahoma, Tennessee.
The Aftermath and Significance
The Battle of Stones River was a costly affair for both sides. The Union suffered 9,532 casualties (1,730 killed, 7,802 wounded), representing about 20% of Rosecrans‘ force. The Confederates, meanwhile, lost 9,239 men (1,294 killed, 7,945 wounded), or roughly 25% of Bragg‘s army. The high casualty rate earned the battle the grim distinction of having the highest percentage of casualties of any major battle in the Civil War.
| Army | Engaged | Killed | Wounded | Captured/Missing | Total Casualties | Percent |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Union | 43,400 | 1,730 | 7,802 | 3,717 | 13,249 | 31% |
| Confederate | 37,712 | 1,294 | 7,945 | 1,027 | 10,266 | 27% |
Table 1: Casualty figures for the Battle of Stones River. (Source: National Park Service)
Despite the heavy losses, the Union claimed a strategic victory. Bragg‘s retreat meant that the Confederates had to abandon Middle Tennessee, a vital food-producing region, to Union control. This loss dealt a significant blow to the Confederate war effort in the Western Theater and opened the door for Rosecrans‘ subsequent campaign to capture Chattanooga.
Moreover, the battle provided a much-needed boost to Union morale. Coming on the heels of the disappointing defeat at Fredericksburg and the ongoing political tensions between the Lincoln administration and the Democratic opposition, the victory at Stones River demonstrated the Union‘s resilience and determination to see the war through to the end. As President Lincoln remarked, "the country scarcely could have lived over" a defeat at Stones River.
The battle also had significant implications for the military careers of its key participants. Rosecrans, who had been criticized for his caution and slowness to act, was hailed as a hero and promoted to major general in the regular army. His victory at Stones River helped to establish him as one of the Union‘s most capable commanders in the Western Theater.
Bragg, on the other hand, faced intense criticism for his handling of the battle and his decision to retreat. Many of his subordinates, including Generals Polk and Hardee, openly questioned his leadership and strategic judgement. Despite these criticisms, Bragg retained the support of Confederate President Jefferson Davis and remained in command of the Army of Tennessee until after the Battle of Chickamauga in September 1863.
Visiting Stones River Battlefield Today
Today, the Stones River Battlefield is preserved as part of the Stones River National Battlefield Park, managed by the National Park Service. The park, which covers over 700 acres, includes a visitor center, museum, and several miles of hiking trails that allow visitors to explore the key sites of the battle.
The visitor center, located on the west side of the park, features exhibits on the battle and the Civil War in Middle Tennessee. Visitors can watch a short film about the battle, view artifacts and displays related to the soldiers and civilians who experienced the conflict, and obtain maps and information about the park‘s hiking trails and historic sites.
One of the most popular hiking trails in the park is the Stones River Greenway, a 4.5-mile paved trail that follows the course of Stones River and connects the battlefield to the Fortress Rosecrans site. The trail offers scenic views of the river and the surrounding countryside and is a favorite among walkers, runners, and cyclists.
Other notable sites in the park include the Stones River National Cemetery, which contains the graves of over 6,100 Union soldiers, and the Hazen Brigade Monument, one of the oldest Civil War monuments in the country. The monument, a simple stone block erected by the survivors of Colonel William Hazen‘s brigade in 1863, stands as a testament to the bravery and sacrifice of the Union soldiers who fought at Stones River.
Throughout the year, the park hosts a variety of special events and programs, including ranger-led tours, living history demonstrations, and commemorative ceremonies. These events provide visitors with a deeper understanding of the battle and its significance in American history and offer opportunities to connect with the stories of the soldiers and civilians who lived through this pivotal moment in the Civil War.
A Lasting Legacy
The Battle of Stones River may not be as well-known as other Civil War engagements like Gettysburg or Antietam, but its impact on the course of the war cannot be overstated. The Union victory at Stones River helped to turn the tide of the war in the Western Theater, providing a crucial boost to Northern morale and setting the stage for future successes in the region.
As historian James M. McPherson notes in his Pulitzer Prize-winning book "Battle Cry of Freedom," the significance of Stones River lies not just in its military outcome, but in its political and psychological impact:
"Stones River was a political as well as a military victory for the Union. Coming after the disaster at Fredericksburg, it helped to sustain Northern morale and determination to see the war through to victory. It also strengthened Lincoln‘s hand against the growing Democratic opposition to the war."
Today, as we continue to study and reflect on the Civil War and its legacy, the Battle of Stones River serves as a powerful reminder of the courage, sacrifice, and determination displayed by the soldiers on both sides of the conflict. By preserving and interpreting this pivotal moment in American history, we ensure that future generations will never forget the hard-fought lessons of the past and the enduring importance of the ideals for which so many gave their lives.
