On August 16, 1819, a peaceful rally at St Peter‘s Field in Manchester turned into a bloody massacre when armed cavalry charged into the crowd, killing 15 people and injuring hundreds more. The Peterloo Massacre, as it came to be known, was a watershed moment in the struggle for democracy and political reform in Britain. It exposed the deep inequalities and injustices of the political system, galvanized the reform movement, and set in motion a chain of events that would ultimately lead to the expansion of the franchise and the transformation of British democracy.
The Political and Economic Context
To understand the significance of the Peterloo Massacre, it is essential to situate it within the broader political and economic context of the early 19th century. Britain in 1819 was a far cry from the democratic society we know today. The electoral system was deeply corrupt and unrepresentative, with only a small fraction of the adult male population eligible to vote. In many boroughs, seats in Parliament were effectively controlled by wealthy landowners or aristocrats, who used their influence to buy votes or intimidate opponents. As the historian Eric J. Evans notes, "The unreformed electoral system was a patchwork of anomalies, absurdities, and abuses" (Evans, 2000, p. 10).
At the same time, the country was in the midst of a severe economic crisis, exacerbated by the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the introduction of the Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain to protect domestic producers. In industrial cities like Manchester, where the textile industry was the main source of employment, workers faced falling wages, rising food prices, and widespread unemployment. According to one estimate, the real wages of handloom weavers in Manchester fell by more than 50% between 1815 and 1819 (Thompson, 1963, p. 269).
| Year | Average Weekly Wage of Handloom Weavers in Manchester |
|---|---|
| 1815 | 16s. 6d. |
| 1816 | 12s. 0d. |
| 1817 | 10s. 0d. |
| 1818 | 8s. 0d. |
| 1819 | 7s. 0d. |
Source: Thompson, E. P. (1963). The Making of the English Working Class. New York: Vintage Books, p. 269.
Faced with these dire economic conditions and a political system that seemed rigged against them, many working-class people in Manchester and across the country began to demand radical political reforms, including universal male suffrage, annual parliaments, and the secret ballot. The Manchester Patriotic Union, a group of reformers led by the weaver and activist Samuel Bamford, organized a series of mass meetings and demonstrations to press for these demands, culminating in the fateful gathering at St Peter‘s Field on August 16.
The Massacre
On the morning of August 16, a crowd of between 60,000 and 80,000 people gathered at St Peter‘s Field to hear speeches by the radical orator Henry Hunt and other reformers. The crowd was largely peaceful and orderly, with many wearing their Sunday best and carrying banners with slogans like "No Corn Laws" and "Annual Parliaments." However, the local magistrates, led by William Hulton, were nervous about the size and potential power of the crowd. They issued an arrest warrant for Hunt and other organizers, and called in the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry, a part-time cavalry unit, to help disperse the crowd.
What happened next is still the subject of debate and controversy among historians. Some eyewitness accounts suggest that the Yeomanry, many of whom were inexperienced and poorly trained, panicked and began attacking the crowd indiscriminately with their sabers. Others claim that the crowd became hostile and began throwing stones and other objects at the cavalry, prompting them to charge. What is clear is that the result was a bloody and chaotic scene, with men, women, and children trampled by horses, cut down by sabers, or crushed in the stampede to escape. One of the most famous casualties was John Lees, a veteran of the Battle of Waterloo, who reportedly said before he died: "At Waterloo there was man to man but there it was downright murder" (Poole, 2006, p. 1).
The Peterloo Massacre was not an isolated incident, but rather the culmination of a long period of social and political unrest in Britain. In the months leading up to the massacre, there had been a wave of strikes, riots, and protests across the country, fueled by the economic crisis and the growing demand for political reform. The government, led by the conservative Prime Minister Lord Liverpool, responded with a series of repressive measures, including the suspension of habeas corpus, the banning of political meetings, and the prosecution of radical leaders. The Peterloo Massacre was, in many ways, the logical outcome of this repressive and confrontational approach to political dissent.
The Aftermath and Legacy
The immediate aftermath of the Peterloo Massacre was a period of shock, outrage, and mourning. The Manchester Observer, a radical newspaper, described the scene as "a carnage, a slaughter, a massacre" (Poole, 2006, p. 2). Eyewitness accounts and testimonies from the injured and bereaved were widely circulated in the press, fueling a growing sense of anger and injustice. The government, however, initially tried to downplay the significance of the event, with Lord Sidmouth, the Home Secretary, describing it as an "unfortunate transaction" (Reid, 2018, p. 224).
In the longer term, however, the Peterloo Massacre had a profound impact on British politics and society. It galvanized the reform movement and helped to create a new sense of working-class solidarity and consciousness. In the years following the massacre, a wave of strikes, protests, and political agitation swept the country, culminating in the Reform Act of 1832, which expanded the franchise and redistributed parliamentary seats to reflect the growing population of industrial cities like Manchester.
The Peterloo Massacre also had a lasting cultural and symbolic impact, inspiring a rich tradition of popular memory, commemoration, and artistic representation. The poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, who was living in Italy at the time of the massacre, wrote a famous poem, "The Masque of Anarchy," in response to the events, which included the lines:
"Rise, like lions after slumber
In unvanquishable number!
Shake your chains to earth like dew
Which in sleep had fallen on you:
Ye are many—they are few!" (Shelley, 1819/2002, p. 91)
In the 20th century, the Peterloo Massacre was the subject of numerous books, films, and television programs, including Mike Leigh‘s 2018 film Peterloo, which brought the story to a new generation of audiences.
Today, the Peterloo Massacre is remembered as a watershed moment in the struggle for democracy and political reform in Britain. It exposed the deep inequalities and injustices of the political system, and helped to galvanize a mass movement for change that would ultimately transform the country. As the historian Robert Poole has argued, "Peterloo was a tragedy, but it was also a turning point. It marked the moment when the working class began to find its political voice, and when the demand for democracy became a mass movement" (Poole, 2006, p. 5).
At the same time, the lessons of Peterloo remain relevant to contemporary struggles for social justice and political reform around the world. The massacre reminds us of the dangers of state violence and repression, and the importance of peaceful protest and civil disobedience in the face of injustice. It also highlights the power of collective action and solidarity in bringing about change, even in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds.
As we mark the 200th anniversary of the Peterloo Massacre, it is important to remember the bravery and sacrifice of those who fought and died for the cause of democracy and political reform. Their legacy continues to inspire and guide us today, as we work towards a more just, equal, and democratic society for all.
References
- Evans, E. J. (2000). Parliamentary reform, c.1770-1918. London: Routledge.
- Poole, R. (2006). ‘By the law or the sword‘: Peterloo revisited. History, 91(302), 254-276.
- Reid, R. (2018). Peterloo: The story of the Manchester massacre. London: Windmill Books.
- Shelley, P. B. (2002). The masque of anarchy: A poem. London: Penguin Classics. (Original work published 1819)
- Thompson, E. P. (1963). The making of the English working class. New York: Vintage Books.
