Introduction
The history of Roman Britain is a tapestry woven with tales of conquest, rebellion, and political intrigue. Among the many fascinating episodes in this rich narrative, one event stands out as a pivotal moment: the brief period when the city of York, known to the Romans as Eboracum, served as the capital of the entire Roman Empire. This extraordinary chapter in York‘s history unfolded during the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, a warrior-emperor who sought to solidify his legacy by conquering the far reaches of Britain.
Historical Background: Roman Britain Before Severus
To fully appreciate the significance of York‘s elevation to imperial capital, it is essential to understand the context of Roman Britain prior to Septimius Severus‘ reign. The Roman conquest of Britain began in earnest under Emperor Claudius in AD 43, with the establishment of a provincial capital at Camulodunum (modern-day Colchester). Over the following decades, the Romans steadily expanded their control over the island, constructing a network of roads and fortifications, including the iconic Hadrian‘s Wall, which marked the northern frontier of the province.
The Strategic Importance of York (Eboracum)
Amidst the Roman settlements that dotted the landscape of Britain, York, or Eboracum, held a position of particular strategic importance. Situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss, York served as a vital military base and a key node in the Roman road network. The city‘s location made it an ideal staging point for campaigns against the rebellious tribes of the north, as well as a crucial link in the supply chain that sustained the Roman legions stationed along Hadrian‘s Wall.
The Year of the Five Emperors and Severus‘ Rise to Power
The events that would propel York to the status of imperial capital had their roots in the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193). Following the assassination of Emperor Pertinax, the Roman Empire was plunged into a series of political and military rivalries, with multiple claimants vying for the imperial throne. Among these contenders was Septimius Severus, a skilled military commander who had previously served as governor of Pannonia Superior (modern-day Hungary and parts of Austria and Croatia).
Severus‘ path to power was not without obstacles. In AD 196-197, he faced a significant challenge from the British governor, Clodius Albinus, who had declared himself emperor with the support of the British legions. The two rivals met in a decisive battle at Lugdunum (present-day Lyon) in Gaul, where Severus emerged victorious after a bloody and hard-fought encounter. The Battle of Lugdunum was one of the largest military engagements in Roman history, with estimates suggesting that as many as 150,000 soldiers may have been involved (Dio, "Roman History," 76.6.1).
Severus Sets His Sights on Britain
Having secured his position as emperor, Septimius Severus turned his attention to the far reaches of the Roman Empire. As a ruler known for his military prowess, Severus sought to emulate the conquests of his predecessors and cement his legacy by subduing the rebellious tribes of northern Britain, a feat that had eluded even the great emperors of the past.
In AD 207, Severus received a letter from the British governor warning that the entire province was in danger of being overrun by hostile tribes (Herodian, "History of the Roman Empire," 3.14.1). This dire report provided the emperor with the perfect pretext to launch a massive military campaign and assert his authority over the island.
The Severan Surge: York Becomes the Imperial Capital
Septimius Severus responded to the threat in Britain with an unprecedented display of force, mobilizing a vast army for what historians have dubbed the "Severan Surge." The emperor assembled a campaigning force of 50,000 men, the largest army ever to fight on British soil, dwarfing even the armies of the English Civil War and the Wars of the Roses.
In AD 208, Severus arrived in Britain, accompanied by his imperial court, which included his wife, Julia Domna, and his sons, Caracalla and Geta. The emperor also brought with him the imperial treasury (fiscus) and a retinue of senators, effectively transplanting the nerve center of the Roman Empire to the island‘s shores. To secure his rear, Severus strategically placed family members and trusted allies as governors in key provinces throughout the empire (Dio, "Roman History," 77.11.1).
Significantly, Severus chose the city of York as his base of operations, elevating it to the status of imperial capital. From AD 208 until his death in AD 211, York served as the center of imperial power, housing the imperial family, the treasury, and the empire‘s elite. This remarkable period marked the only time in history when the capital of the Roman Empire was located outside of Rome or Constantinople.
Campaigns and Controversy: The Alleged Genocide in Scotland
From his headquarters in York, Septimius Severus launched two massive campaigns into Scotland in AD 209 and AD 210. The Roman legions, led by the emperor himself, marched north along the ancient Roman road known as Dere Street, encountering fierce resistance from the native tribes, most notably the Caledonians and the Maeatae.
The campaigns were marked by brutal guerrilla warfare, with the Romans facing ambushes, hit-and-run attacks, and the challenges of fighting in the rugged terrain of the Scottish Highlands. Despite these difficulties, Severus‘ battle-hardened legions emerged victorious, subduing the rebellious tribes and extending Roman control over the region.
However, the most controversial aspect of these campaigns is the alleged genocide that Severus ordered in AD 210. According to the historian Cassius Dio, the emperor instructed his soldiers to "spare none, but to exterminate the whole race" of the northern tribes ("Roman History," 77.12.1). Recent archaeological evidence, particularly in the Scottish Borders, Fife, and the Upper Midland Valley, suggests that this genocidal policy may have been carried out to a significant extent.
The impact of this alleged genocide was profound, with the affected regions taking nearly 80 years to recover demographically. This period of relative quiet in the far north of Britain lasted until the area once again became a source of trouble for the Romans in the late 3rd century.
The Imperial Presence in York: Archaeological Evidence
The presence of the imperial court in York during Severus‘ reign has left a lasting mark on the city‘s archaeological record. Excavations have revealed the remains of the principia, the headquarters building where the emperor would have conducted official business, as well as a palatial complex befitting the status of an imperial residence.
The discovery of high-quality imported pottery, luxury goods, and coins bearing the likenesses of Severus and his family further attests to the presence of the imperial household in York. The city also experienced a surge in economic activity during this period, with increased trade and the establishment of a mint to produce coins for the campaign‘s financial needs.
The Legacy of Severus and the Fate of Roman Britain
Septimius Severus‘ reign, though marked by military triumphs, came to an abrupt end in February AD 211 when the emperor succumbed to illness in York. His death had far-reaching consequences for both the city and the wider province of Britain.
Without the driving force of Severus‘ ambition to subdue the northern tribes, his sons, Caracalla and Geta, abandoned the campaign and hastily returned to Rome to secure their own power. The sibling rivalry culminated in Caracalla ordering the murder of Geta, leaving him as the sole emperor (Herodian, "History of the Roman Empire," 4.4.3).
As a result of this power struggle, the Romans withdrew from the far north of Britain, and the frontier fell back to the line of Hadrian‘s Wall. York‘s brief tenure as the imperial capital came to an end, and the city reverted to its role as a provincial capital and military base.
Conclusion
The remarkable story of York‘s transformation into the temporary capital of the Roman Empire during the reign of Septimius Severus is a testament to the complex political and military dynamics that shaped the course of Roman Britain. This fascinating episode highlights the ambition, military prowess, and ruthlessness of one of Rome‘s most formidable emperors, while also shedding light on the significant events and controversies that unfolded on the island‘s northern frontiers.
Severus‘ campaigns in Scotland, though brutal and controversial, demonstrate the lengths to which Roman emperors would go to secure their legacies and expand the empire‘s borders. The archaeological evidence of York‘s imperial past serves as a tangible reminder of this pivotal moment in the city‘s history, when it briefly stood at the center of the Roman world.
In the end, the story of York‘s rise to imperial prominence is a chapter in the larger narrative of Roman Britain, a province that witnessed the ebb and flow of Roman power over the course of four centuries. The legacy of Septimius Severus and his campaigns in the north would continue to shape the political and military landscape of the island long after the emperor‘s death, leaving an indelible mark on the history of Roman Britain and the city of York.
References
- Cassius Dio. (n.d.). Roman History. (E. Cary, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library.
- Herodian. (n.d.). History of the Roman Empire. (C. R. Whittaker, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library.
- Birley, A. (1988). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. Yale University Press.
- Breeze, D. J. (2006). The Antonine Wall. John Donald Publishers Ltd.
- Mattingly, D. (2006). An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC – AD 409. Penguin Books.
- Millett, M. (2005). Roman Britain. English Heritage.
Figures and Tables
| Emperor | Reign | Significant Events in Britain |
|---|---|---|
| Claudius | AD 41-54 | Conquest of Britain begins (AD 43) |
| Hadrian | AD 117-138 | Construction of Hadrian‘s Wall |
| Antoninus Pius | AD 138-161 | Construction of the Antonine Wall |
| Septimius Severus | AD 193-211 | Campaigns in Scotland, York becomes imperial capital |
| Caracalla | AD 198-217 | Withdrawal from Scotland, frontier returns to Hadrian‘s Wall |
Map of Septimius Severus‘ campaigns in Scotland, AD 209-210. (Source: Breeze, 2006)
Artist‘s reconstruction of the principia (headquarters building) in York during Severus‘ reign. (Source: Yorkshire Museum)
