In the 1998 Venezuelan presidential election, Hugo Chavez, a former military officer and leader of a failed coup attempt, won a resounding victory with 56% of the vote. Chavez‘s election marked a significant turning point in Venezuelan politics, as it brought an end to four decades of domination by the country‘s traditional two-party system. But why did Venezuelans embrace such a radical outsider as their leader? To understand Chavez‘s rise to power, we need to examine the complex historical, economic, and social factors that shaped Venezuela in the late 20th century.
The Punto Fijo Pact and the Illusion of Stability
Venezuela‘s modern democratic era began in 1958, with the signing of the Punto Fijo Pact between the country‘s three main political parties: Acción Democrática (AD), COPEI, and Unión Republicana Democrática (URD). The pact established a power-sharing arrangement that ensured a peaceful transition from military rule to civilian democracy.[^1] For the next several decades, Venezuela enjoyed a period of relative stability and prosperity, fueled in large part by the country‘s vast oil reserves.
However, beneath the surface, the Punto Fijo system was plagued by corruption, clientelism, and a lack of accountability. The two main parties, AD and COPEI, alternated power and used the state‘s oil wealth to maintain their grip on the political system. As one scholar notes, "The Punto Fijo regime was characterized by a high degree of centralization, a strong presidency, and a weak legislature and judiciary."[^2]
The Economic Crisis of the 1980s and 1990s
Venezuela‘s economy was hit hard by the global oil glut of the 1980s, which caused prices to plummet and exposed the country‘s overdependence on petroleum exports. Between 1981 and 1989, Venezuela‘s per capita income fell by 24%, and the poverty rate increased from 17% to 48%.[^3] The government implemented austerity measures and structural adjustment programs under pressure from the International Monetary Fund, which led to rising unemployment, inflation, and social unrest.
The economic crisis reached a boiling point in February 1989, when a wave of protests and riots known as the "Caracazo" erupted in response to the government‘s decision to raise fuel prices and public transportation fares. The military was called in to restore order, resulting in the deaths of hundreds, if not thousands, of civilians.[^4] The Caracazo was a turning point in Venezuelan politics, as it exposed the deep social and economic divisions in the country and eroded public trust in the government.
The Rise of Hugo Chavez
It was in this context of political and economic upheaval that Hugo Chavez emerged as a national figure. Born into a working-class family in the rural state of Barinas, Chavez had a long-standing interest in politics and social justice. He attended Venezuela‘s military academy and rose through the ranks of the army, where he became increasingly critical of the country‘s political system and economic inequalities.[^5]
In 1992, Chavez led a failed military coup against the government of President Carlos Andres Perez. Although the coup was quickly put down and Chavez was sent to prison, his actions garnered significant public support and established him as a symbol of resistance against the corrupt and out-of-touch political elite. After being pardoned and released from prison in 1994, Chavez began building a political movement around his socialist ideology and populist rhetoric.
Chavez‘s political vision was heavily influenced by the ideas of 19th-century Venezuelan revolutionary Simón Bolívar, as well as other Latin American socialist and anti-imperialist thinkers such as Fidel Castro and Che Guevara. He advocated for a "Bolivarian Revolution" that would overturn Venezuela‘s existing political and economic order and create a more just, equitable, and socially progressive society.[^6]
The 1998 Presidential Election
When Chavez ran for president in 1998 as the candidate of the Fifth Republic Movement (MVR), he faced a divided and weakened opposition. The traditional parties, AD and COPEI, had been discredited by years of corruption and economic mismanagement, and many Venezuelans were hungry for change. Chavez‘s main opponent was Henrique Salas Römer, a Yale-educated economist and former governor of Carabobo state who ran as an independent with the backing of a coalition of center-right parties.
During the campaign, Chavez skillfully tapped into the anger and frustration of Venezuela‘s poor and working-class majority. He promised to convene a constituent assembly to rewrite the country‘s constitution, redistribute oil wealth, and break the power of the oligarchy. Chavez‘s fiery rhetoric and charismatic personality helped him connect with voters on a personal level, and he benefited from a media environment that often failed to scrutinize his record and proposals.[^7]
On election day, Chavez won a landslide victory with 56.2% of the vote, compared to 39.97% for Salas Römer. Turnout was high, at 63.45% of registered voters.[^8] Chavez‘s win was widely seen as a rejection of Venezuela‘s traditional political elite and a mandate for radical change.
| Candidate | Party/Coalition | Votes | % |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hugo Chávez | MVR | 3,673,685 | 56.20% |
| Henrique Salas Römer | Independent | 2,613,161 | 39.97% |
| Irene Sáez | IRENE | 184,568 | 2.82% |
| Luis Alfaro Ucero | AD | 27,586 | 0.42% |
| Miguel Rodríguez | COPEI | 26,401 | 0.40% |
| Alfredo Ramos | La Causa R | 7,275 | 0.11% |
| Oswaldo Sujú Raffo | Renovación | 2,919 | 0.04% |
| Radamés Muñoz León | Apertura | 2,901 | 0.04% |
Table 1: Results of the 1998 Venezuelan Presidential Election[^8]
The Aftermath of Chavez‘s Election
Chavez‘s election marked the beginning of a new era in Venezuelan politics, one characterized by sweeping social and economic reforms, increased state control over key industries, and a more confrontational stance toward the United States and other Western powers. In his first years in office, Chavez convened a constituent assembly that drafted a new constitution, which was approved by voters in a referendum in December 1999. The new constitution expanded presidential powers, eliminated the Senate, and renamed the country the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.[^9]
Chavez also implemented a series of populist social programs known as the "Bolivarian Missions," which provided free healthcare, education, and subsidized food to millions of poor Venezuelans. These programs were funded by the country‘s oil wealth, which Chavez increasingly used to finance his political agenda and maintain his popularity.[^10]
However, Chavez‘s presidency was also marked by growing polarization, economic mismanagement, and a steady erosion of democratic norms. His confrontational style and anti-American rhetoric alienated many middle- and upper-class Venezuelans, who accused him of authoritarianism and endangering private property rights. Chavez also faced criticism from human rights organizations for his crackdowns on media freedom and political opponents.[^11]
Despite these concerns, Chavez remained broadly popular among Venezuela‘s poor and working-class majority, winning reelection in 2000, 2006, and 2012. He survived a failed coup attempt in 2002 and a recall referendum in 2004, using each challenge to further consolidate his power and rally his base.[^12]
Conclusion
The rise of Hugo Chavez in Venezuela was the product of a complex set of historical, economic, and social factors that created a perfect storm for political upheaval. The failures of the Punto Fijo system, the economic crisis of the 1980s and 1990s, and the discrediting of traditional parties all contributed to a widespread sense of frustration and disillusionment among Venezuelans. Chavez was able to capitalize on this discontent by presenting himself as a champion of the people and a break from the corrupt political establishment.
However, Chavez‘s legacy is a mixed one. While he undoubtedly improved the lives of many poor Venezuelans through his social programs and redistribution of oil wealth, his rule also contributed to the weakening of democratic institutions, the polarization of society, and the mismanagement of the economy. Chavez‘s death in 2013 left Venezuela in a state of crisis, with a collapsing economy, widespread shortages of basic goods, and a bitter political divide that continues to this day.
Ultimately, the story of Chavez‘s rise to power in Venezuela offers a cautionary tale about the dangers of populist politics and the fragility of democratic institutions. It underscores the importance of building inclusive, transparent, and accountable political systems that can address the needs and aspirations of all citizens, not just those of a charismatic leader or a particular political movement. Only by learning from the lessons of Venezuela‘s recent past can the country – and other nations facing similar challenges – hope to build a more stable, prosperous, and democratic future.
[^1]: Levine, Daniel H. "Venezuela: The Character, Crisis, and Possible Future of Democracy." World Affairs 156, no. 2 (1993): 59-69.[^2]: Coppedge, Michael. "Venezuela: Conservative Representation without Conservative Parties." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36, no. 1 (1994): 71-94.
[^3]: McCoy, Jennifer L., and David J. Myers, eds. The Unraveling of Representative Democracy in Venezuela. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
[^4]: López Maya, Margarita. "The Venezuelan Caracazo of 1989: Popular Protest and Institutional Weakness." Journal of Latin American Studies 35, no. 1 (2003): 117-137.
[^5]: Jones, Bart. Hugo!: The Hugo Chavez Story from Mud Hut to Perpetual Revolution. Hanover, NH: Steerforth Press, 2007.
[^6]: Gott, Richard. Hugo Chavez and the Bolivarian Revolution. London: Verso, 2005.
[^7]: Hellinger, Daniel. "Political Overview: The Breakdown of Puntofijismo and the Rise of Chavismo." In Venezuelan Politics in the Chávez Era: Class, Polarization, and Conflict, edited by Steve Ellner and Daniel Hellinger, 27-54. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2003.
[^8]: Consejo Nacional Electoral. "Elección Presidencial – 6 de Diciembre de 1998." Accessed April 7, 2023. http://www.cne.gov.ve/web/documentos/estadisticas/e98_01.pdf.
[^9]: Wilpert, Gregory. Changing Venezuela by Taking Power: The History and Policies of the Chavez Government. London: Verso, 2007.
[^10]: Corrales, Javier, and Michael Penfold. Dragon in the Tropics: Hugo Chavez and the Political Economy of Revolution in Venezuela. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2011.
[^11]: Human Rights Watch. "Venezuela: Chávez‘s Authoritarian Legacy." March 5, 2013. https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/05/venezuela-chavezs-authoritarian-legacy.
[^12]: Hawkins, Kirk A. Venezuela‘s Chavismo and Populism in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
