Reconstruction of a Roman toga. Source: Wikimedia Commons
When we imagine ancient Romans, we often picture them clad in pristine white togas or robes. But what did Romans actually wear from day to day? How did their clothing reflect societal norms and communicate status? As a historian, I find that looking at what people wore provides fascinating insights into the culture and structure of ancient Roman society. Let‘s take a deep dive into the world of togas, tunics, and other garments of this influential civilization.
The Toga: Not for Everyday
The toga, a large woolen cloak wrapped around the body, is perhaps the most iconic of Roman garments. However, contrary to popular belief, the toga was not everyday dress. It was a symbol of Roman citizenship and was generally reserved for formal occasions, religious rites, and appearances at the Forum.
Togas were challenging to put on, uncomfortable to wear, and impractical for physical activity. As the poet Horace wrote, "A toga is a cumbersome thing to wear, even for a politician" (Epistles 1.18.30). A proper toga required the assistance of several slaves to drape correctly.
Types of Togas
There were several distinct types of togas worn in ancient Rome:
| Toga Type | Description | Wearers |
|---|---|---|
| Toga Pura | Plain white toga | Common citizens |
| Toga Praetexta | White toga with purple border | Magistrates, freeborn boys |
| Toga Pulla | Dark-colored toga worn in mourning | All citizens during mourning periods |
| Toga Candida | Artificially whitened toga | Candidates for political office |
| Toga Picta | Purple toga embroidered with gold | Victorious generals, emperors |
Data compiled from various sources, incl. Sebesta & Bonfante (2001), The World of Roman Costume
Over time, togas evolved from relatively simple garments to vast swathes of fabric with intricate draping and folds. By the late Republic, togas could be up to 6 meters long and 2.5 meters wide (Vout, 1996). The impracticality of these garments was a conspicuous display of leisure and wealth.
The Tunic: Everyday Wear for All
For daily life, most Romans wore tunics. The basic tunic was a simple, knee-length shirt made from two rectangles of woven wool or linen sewn together, with holes left for the head and arms. It was belted at the waist and typically worn with a cloak or shawl in cold weather.
Tunics for Men and Women
Both men and women wore tunics, but there were some differences in style. Men‘s tunics were shorter, usually reaching to just above the knee, while women‘s tunics extended to the ankles. Women often wore a long, sleeveless over-tunic called a stola, which signified marital status and respectability.
Some Roman moralists disapproved of men wearing long-sleeved tunics, seeing them as effeminate. However, fashion-forward men like Julius Caesar helped popularize this daring style. As Suetonius wrote, "He was particular about his appearance…and combed forward his scanty locks from the crown of his head" (Lives of the Caesars, 1.45).
Colors and Quality
The colors and fabrics of tunics conveyed the wearer‘s wealth and rank. Poor Romans and slaves wore coarse, undyed wool, while well-off citizens wore fine white, off-white, or brightly dyed linen and even silk. Dyes were a major industry in the Roman world, with facilities producing costly purple dye from murex snails discovered at archaeological sites like Pompeii.
The most coveted color was Tyrian purple, a deep reddish-purple hue that required thousands of snails to produce just one garment. By the 4th century CE, the Theodosian Code restricted Tyrian purple by law for imperial use only. According to the edict, "Purple garments shall not be made for private citizens nor woven at private homes" (Codex Theodosianus 10.21.3).
Regional Variations
As the Roman Empire expanded, it absorbed influences from the dress of conquered peoples. In colder climes like Britain and Gaul, longer sleeved and full-length tunics were more common. The Vindolanda tablets, found at Hadrian‘s Wall, include requests from soldiers for warm socks and underpants to survive the chill (Tablet 346).
Archaeological finds like the Tarkhan dress, a linen garment from 3rd century CE Egypt, show how regional textile traditions melded with Roman styles. The dress features decorative tapestry bands called clavi that Romans adopted from earlier Hellenic fashion.
Accessories and Adornment
Roman dress was not complete without various accessories. Both men and women often wore multiple rings, fibulae (brooches), and other jewelry in precious metals and stones. Ornate hairstyles were also important markers of status for women. As Ovid wrote, "Neglect of appearance is no small crime in a woman‘s eyes" (Ars Amatoria 3.102).
Many upper-class Roman women wore cosmetics, including face powder, rouge, eyeshadow, and eyeliner. Wigs and extensions in fashionable colors like blonde were also popular. Some writers criticized the use of cosmetics as deceptive. The poet Martial quipped, "You lay a thick coat of chalk upon your skin, Lycoris, but in vain; for the mask reveals the hag within" (Epigrams 2.41).
Legacy of Roman Fashion
The influence of ancient Roman dress extends far beyond the fall of the Empire. Medieval and Renaissance scholars looked to Roman art and literature as a model, adopting elements like the toga as a symbol of rationality and order. In the 18th century, Neoclassical style brought a resurgence of interest in draping and clean lines inspired by Roman dress.
Today, we continue to see echoes of Roman fashion in everything from wedding dresses to the robes of graduates and judges. By understanding what Romans wore, we gain a richer picture of the social fabric of this enduringly influential civilization.
References
- Croom, A. T. (2010). Roman Clothing and Fashion. Amberley Publishing.
- Sebesta, J. L., & Bonfante, L. (2001). The World of Roman Costume. University of Wisconsin Press.
- Vout, C. (1996). The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress. Greece & Rome, 43(2), 204-220.
