English is often described as a "borrowing" language, with a rich history of adopting words from other languages. But no language has had a greater influence on English than Latin. It‘s estimated that 29% of all English words are derived directly from Latin. If we include words from Latin-based languages like French and Italian, that figure jumps to over 60% of all English vocabulary.
To put this in perspective, one out of every three English words you read in this article likely has origins in Latin. For scientific and technical terminology, that percentage is even higher. A whopping 90% of English words in science and technology come from Latin or Latin-based languages.
But how did a Germanic language like English end up with so much Latin influence? Let‘s take a deep dive into the historical factors that have shaped the English language over the centuries.
The Roman Occupation of Britain
The story of Latin‘s influence on English begins with the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD. For nearly 400 years, Britain was a province of the Roman Empire, and Latin was the language of government, trade, and the military.
While Latin never replaced the Celtic languages spoken by the native Britons, it had a significant impact on the local vocabulary. Many Latin words for new concepts entered the Celtic languages during this time, particularly in the domains of warfare, architecture, agriculture, and domestic life.
Some examples of Latin loanwords in Welsh (a Celtic language) include:
- cyllell (knife) from Latin cultellus
- fflour (flower) from Latin florem
- porth (gate) from Latin porta
- milltir (mile) from Latin mille passus
- ffenestr (window) from Latin fenestra
These Latin words were absorbed into Celtic languages, and some eventually made their way into English after the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain in the 5th century AD.
Old English and Latin
Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, was a Germanic language brought to Britain by Germanic tribes in the 5th century. But from its earliest written records, Old English already shows a significant amount of Latin influence.
The Roman mission to Christianize England, which began with Augustine of Canterbury in 597 AD, brought with it a flood of Latin words related to the Church and religious life. Some examples include:
- abbot from Latin abbas
- angel from Latin angelus
- anthem from Latin antiphona
- candle from Latin candela
- nun from Latin nonna
- offer from Latin offerre
- priest from Latin presbyter
- school from Latin schola
By some estimates, around 450 Latin words had already entered the English language before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Latin was the language of the Church and of learning, so Latin words often filled lexical gaps in Old English, especially for abstract or specialized concepts.
The Norman Conquest and Middle English
The single biggest source of Latin words in English came through the influence of French after the Norman Conquest in 1066. The Normans, who were Vikings that had settled in northern France and adopted the French language, became the ruling class in England. For nearly 300 years, French was the language of the nobility, the government, the law, and high culture.
During this period, English borrowed a massive number of French words, many of which were themselves derived from Latin. Some examples include:
- attorney from French avoué, from Latin advocatus
- court from French cour, from Latin cohors
- jury from French juré, from Latin jurare
- liberty from French liberté, from Latin libertas
- parliament from French parlement, from Latin parabolare
- president from French président, from Latin praesidere
- royal from French roial, from Latin regalis
It‘s estimated that around 10,000 French words entered English in the three centuries after the Norman Conquest. Even after English regained dominance as the language of government and learning in the 14th century, this massive stock of French vocabulary remained an integral part of the English language.
The Renaissance and Inkhorn Terms
The Renaissance period in the 16th and 17th centuries brought a renewed interest in classical Latin and Greek literature. Scholars and writers of the time believed that English was a crude and limited language compared to the eloquence and expressiveness of Latin and Greek.
In an attempt to "elevate" the English language, these Renaissance writers borrowed heavily from Latin and Greek to create new words, many of which were considered excessively ornate and pedantic. These words were derisively referred to as "inkhorn terms", after the inkhorns that writers used to hold their ink.
Some examples of inkhorn terms that have survived in modern English include:
- approximate from Latin approximare
- contaminate from Latin contaminare
- dexterity from Latin dexteritas
- enthusiasm from Greek enthousiasmos
- exotic from Greek exotikos
- ingenuity from Latin ingenium
- instigate from Latin instigare
Many of these loanwords were criticized as unnecessary and pretentious. For example, in 1553, Thomas Wilson wrote in his Arte of Rhetorique:
"Among all other lessons this should first be learned, that we never affect any strange ink-horn terms, but to speak as is commonly received: neither seeking to be over fine, nor yet living over-careless…"
Despite the backlash against inkhorn terms, many of them eventually became accepted parts of the English language, particularly in academic and literary contexts.
Latin and Greek Roots in English
One of the reasons Latin and Greek have had such a profound impact on English vocabulary is that many English words are derived from Latin and Greek roots. A root is the basic element of a word that carries its core meaning. Understanding these roots can help us decipher the meanings of words, even if we‘ve never seen them before.
For example, the Latin root dict means "to speak". This root forms the basis of many English words, such as:
- dictate – to speak or state something to be recorded or written down
- predict – to speak about something before it happens
- contradict – to speak against or deny something
- diction – the manner of speaking or choice of words
Similarly, the Greek root graph means "to write". This root appears in words like:
- autograph – to write one‘s own signature
- biography – a written account of someone‘s life
- graphic – relating to visual art or images
- telegraph – a system for transmitting written messages over long distances
Knowing these roots and their meanings can help us break down and understand unfamiliar words. This is particularly useful in scientific and technical fields, where many specialized terms are derived from Latin and Greek roots.
Latin in Modern English
Latin‘s influence on English is not just a relic of the past. Even today, Latin is used to create new words, especially in science, medicine, and technology. When a new concept or invention needs a name, scientists and scholars often turn to Latin and Greek to coin new terms.
Some examples of modern English words with Latin roots include:
- computer – from Latin computare, meaning "to calculate"
- internet – from Latin inter, meaning "between" + net, short for "network"
- multimedia – from Latin multus, meaning "many" + media, meaning "middle" or "intermediate"
- video – from Latin videre, meaning "to see"
Latin also continues to be used in certain contexts as a lingua franca, a common language used for communication between people who speak different native languages. For example, the scientific names for plants and animals are typically in Latin, allowing scientists from different countries to have a standardized nomenclature.
Conclusion
The influence of Latin on the English language is a fascinating story that spans over two millennia. From the Roman occupation of Britain, to the Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, to the Norman Conquest, to the Renaissance, Latin has been a constant presence in the development of English.
Today, English is a global language spoken by over a billion people worldwide. Its rich vocabulary, which draws heavily from Latin and Greek roots, gives it an unparalleled ability to express complex ideas and shade of meaning.
As English continues to evolve and spread in the 21st century, it‘s likely that Latin and Greek will continue to play a role in shaping its vocabulary. For English speakers, a knowledge of Latin and Greek roots provides a key to understanding the meaning and history behind the words we use every day.
In the words of James Bradstreet Greenough and George Lyman Kittredge in their 1902 book Words and Their Ways in English Speech:
"The Latin and the Greek are the quarries from which the English has always drawn words for ‘literary‘ use. The reason is obvious. The Latin and the Greek are the languages in which are recorded the science, the philosophy, the history, the literature, that constitute the chief part of the ‘humanities‘, or the liberal education of the modern world. Hence the need of Latin and Greek words to express ideas connected with higher thought. Moreover, these same words, because of their permanence of form and meaning, give a certain dignity to diction…"
As long as English remains a vibrant and evolving language, it‘s likely that Latin and Greek will continue to shape its growth and development for generations to come.
