Introduction
In the pantheon of 20th-century icons, few figures loom as large as Josephine Baker. Born into poverty and segregation in America, Baker transcended her humble beginnings to become a global sensation, captivating audiences with her exotic dance routines and her magnetic personality. But Baker was more than just a talented entertainer; she was a trailblazer who broke barriers, a war hero who risked her life to fight fascism, and a passionate advocate for civil rights. Her extraordinary life story is a testament to the power of resilience, courage, and the unbreakable human spirit.
Early Life and Struggles
Freda Josephine McDonald was born on June 3, 1906, in St. Louis, Missouri, at a time when racial discrimination was rampant and opportunities for black Americans were severely limited. According to the 1910 census, African Americans made up just 10.7% of the population in St. Louis, but they were subjected to widespread segregation and often forced to live in overcrowded, unsanitary conditions (U.S. Census Bureau, 1910).
Baker‘s early life was marked by hardship and instability. She grew up in a low-income neighborhood and was forced to drop out of school at a young age to help support her family. She witnessed firsthand the violence and brutality of racism, including the East St. Louis Race Riots of 1917, which left an indelible mark on her psyche. "I can still see myself standing on the west bank of the Mississippi looking over into East St. Louis and watching the glow of the burning of Negro homes lighting the sky," she later recalled (Rose, 1989, p. 18).
Despite the obstacles she faced, Baker was determined to make something of herself. She began performing on the streets of St. Louis as a child, honing her skills as a dancer and comedienne. In 1919, at the age of 13, she landed her first job as a chorus girl in the St. Louis Chorus vaudeville show (Jules-Rosette, 2007). It was the start of a remarkable journey that would take her from the stages of St. Louis to the bright lights of Paris and beyond.
Rise to Fame in France
In 1925, Baker made the bold decision to leave America and seek her fortune in France. She arrived in Paris at a time when the city was obsessed with all things exotic and was quickly swept up in the craze for African American performers. Baker‘s unique style, which blended elements of jazz, vaudeville, and African dance, made her an instant sensation.
Her breakout performance came in 1926 at the Folies Bergère music hall, where she appeared on stage wearing little more than a skirt made of artificial bananas. The show, titled "La Folie du Jour," was a massive success, and Baker became an overnight celebrity. According to one critic, "She made her entry entirely nude except for a pink flamingo feather between her limbs; she was being carried upside down and doing the split on the shoulder of a black giant" (Sauvage, 1927, as cited in Haney, 1981, p. 58).
Baker‘s success at the Folies Bergère launched her career as a music hall star, and she went on to become one of the most popular and highest-paid entertainers in Europe. She starred in a string of hit shows, including "La Revue Nègre" (1925), "La Folie du Jour" (1926), and "Zouzou" (1934), and recorded a number of successful albums (Haney, 1981). Her exotic pet cheetah, Chiquita, often shared the stage with her, adding to her allure and mystique.
But Baker was more than just a talented performer; she was also a savvy businesswoman who knew how to market herself and control her own image. She launched her own cosmetics line, opened a Parisian nightclub called Chez Josephine, and became a muse for artists and designers like Pablo Picasso and Christian Dior (Mackrell, 1988). By the end of the 1920s, Baker was one of the most famous and influential women in the world, a symbol of the Jazz Age and the epitome of Parisian chic.
World War II and the French Resistance
When World War II broke out in 1939, Baker found herself in a unique position. As a beloved figure in France and a member of the social elite, she had access to high-level officials and foreign dignitaries. She also had a deep love for her adopted country and a hatred of fascism, which she saw as a threat to the values of liberty and equality that she held dear.
In 1940, after the fall of France to Nazi Germany, Baker was recruited by the French Resistance as an "honorable correspondent" (Onishi, 2021). Her mission was to use her celebrity status and charm to gather intelligence from Axis officials at parties and events. She would then relay this information back to the Allies, using her fame as a cover for her espionage activities.
One of Baker‘s most daring missions took place in 1941, when she was asked to obtain sensitive information about the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. According to historian Sherry Jones (2021), Baker attended a party in Milan where she seduced an Italian admiral and persuaded him to share military secrets. She then wrote down the information in invisible ink on her sheet music and smuggled it out of the country.
Baker‘s work for the Resistance was not without risk. She was constantly under surveillance by the Gestapo and had to be careful not to arouse suspicion. In 1942, she suffered a miscarriage after being interrogated by the Nazis, who suspected her of spying (Onishi, 2021). But Baker refused to be intimidated and continued her work for the Resistance throughout the war.
After the liberation of France in 1944, Baker‘s contributions to the war effort were recognized by the French government. She was awarded the Croix de Guerre and the Rosette de la Résistance, two of France‘s highest military honors (Mackrell, 1988). She was also named a Chevalier of the Légion d‘honneur, becoming the first American-born woman to receive the award (Jules-Rosette, 2007).
Civil Rights Activism and Later Life
Despite her success and acclaim in France, Baker never lost sight of the struggles facing African Americans back home. She became increasingly involved in the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s, using her platform to speak out against racism and segregation.
In 1951, Baker was invited to perform at the Stork Club in New York City, but she refused to appear unless the club agreed to integrate its audience. The club‘s owner, Sherman Billingsley, refused, and Baker launched a public campaign against him, accusing him of racism and discrimination. The controversy made national headlines and helped to galvanize support for the civil rights movement (Jules-Rosette, 2007).
Baker also used her fame to draw attention to the plight of African Americans in the South. In 1955, she traveled to Mississippi to support the family of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy who had been brutally murdered by white supremacists. Baker spoke at Till‘s funeral and helped to raise money for his family, despite receiving death threats from the Ku Klux Klan (Onishi, 2021).
In 1963, Baker was invited to speak at the March on Washington, where she delivered a powerful speech calling for an end to racism and discrimination. "You know, friends, that I do not lie to you when I tell you I have walked into the palaces of kings and queens and into the houses of presidents," she said. "And much more. But I could not walk into a hotel in America and get a cup of coffee, and that made me mad" (Baker, 1963, as cited in Onishi, 2021).
Despite her activism and her love for America, Baker remained loyal to her adopted country of France. She became a French citizen in 1937 and spent much of her later life in a castle in the south of France, where she raised a "rainbow tribe" of 12 adopted children from different countries and ethnicities (Haney, 1981). She saw her family as a symbol of the kind of multicultural, multiracial harmony that she had always dreamed of.
Baker‘s final performance took place in April 1975, at the Bobino theater in Paris. She suffered a cerebral hemorrhage shortly afterwards and died on April 12, 1975, at the age of 68. Her funeral was attended by over 20,000 people, including Princess Grace of Monaco and Coretta Scott King (Mackrell, 1988). She was buried in Monaco, dressed in a French military uniform with the medals she had been awarded for her service during World War II.
Legacy and Influence
Josephine Baker‘s legacy extends far beyond her groundbreaking career as a performer and her heroic work during World War II. She was a trailblazer who challenged societal norms and fought for justice and equality throughout her life. Her unique perspective as a black American woman who had found acceptance and success abroad gave her a powerful voice in the struggle for civil rights.
Baker‘s influence can be seen in the generations of performers who followed in her footsteps, from Lena Horne and Dorothy Dandridge to Beyoncé and Rihanna. Her fashion sense and her fearless embrace of her own sexuality inspired countless imitators and helped to redefine beauty standards for women of color.
But perhaps Baker‘s most enduring legacy is the way in which she embodied the very best of the human spirit. She overcame unimaginable obstacles and injustices to become one of the most beloved and respected figures of her time. She used her fame and her talent to make the world a better place, and she never stopped fighting for what she believed in.
In November 2021, Baker was honored with a posthumous induction into the Panthéon, France‘s national mausoleum for its most distinguished citizens. She became the first black woman and the first performing artist to receive this honor (Onishi, 2021). The ceremony was attended by French President Emmanuel Macron, who praised Baker as a "war hero" and a "tireless anti-racist activist" (Macron, 2021, as cited in Onishi, 2021).
Baker‘s legacy is a reminder that one person can make a difference, that courage and compassion can change the world. As she once said, "Surely the day will come when color means nothing more than the skin tone, when religion is seen uniquely as a way to speak one‘s soul; when birth places have the weight of a throw of the dice and all men are born free, when understanding breeds love and brotherhood" (Baker, n.d., as cited in Onishi, 2021). That day may not yet have arrived, but thanks to pioneers like Josephine Baker, it is closer than ever before.
Conclusion
Josephine Baker was a woman of many talents and contradictions. She was a dancer, a singer, a spy, an activist, a mother, and a icon. She broke barriers and challenged stereotypes wherever she went, using her fame and her charisma to fight for justice and equality. Her life story is a testament to the resilience and the indomitable spirit of the human soul.
Baker‘s legacy continues to inspire people around the world, more than four decades after her death. Her courage, her compassion, and her unwavering commitment to her values serve as a reminder of the power of individual action in the face of adversity. As we continue to grapple with issues of race, gender, and social justice in the 21st century, we would do well to remember the example of Josephine Baker, a woman who knew that "the things we truly love stay with us always, locked in our hearts as long as life remains" (Baker, n.d.).
References
Baker, J. (n.d.). Quotes. Goodreads. Retrieved from https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/1124246.Josephine_Baker
Baker, J. (1963, August 28). Speech at the March on Washington. American Rhetoric. Retrieved from https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/josephinebakerwashington.htm
Haney, L. (1981). Naked at the feast: A biography of Josephine Baker. Dodd, Mead.
Jones, S. (2021). Josephine Baker‘s secret war against Hitler. The Daily Beast. Retrieved from https://www.thedailybeast.com/josephine-bakers-secret-war-against-hitler
Jules-Rosette, B. (2007). Josephine Baker in art and life: The icon and the image. University of Illinois Press.
Mackrell, J. (1988). Flappers: Six women of a dangerous generation. Macmillan.
Onishi, N. (2021). Josephine Baker becomes first Black woman honored at France‘s Panthéon. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/30/world/europe/josephine-baker-france-pantheon.html
Rose, P. I. (1989). Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in her time. Doubleday.
Sauvage, M. (1927). Les mémoires de Joséphine Baker. Kra.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1910). 1910 Census: Population by counties and minor civil divisions 1910, 1900, 1890. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/36894832v3_TOC.pdf
