The Hundred Years‘ War (1337-1453) was a defining conflict of the Late Middle Ages that reshaped the histories of England and France. Its origins lay in the complex web of rivalries and dynastic disputes that had bound the two kingdoms together since the Norman Conquest of 1066. In this article, we‘ll take an in-depth look at the causes and key events that sparked this transformative war that would last for over a century.
The Roots of Rivalry: England and France After 1066
To understand the Hundred Years‘ War, we must first look back to the seismic events of 1066. When William, Duke of Normandy, conquered England and became its king, it bound the ruling classes of the two lands together. As historian David Green notes, "The Norman Conquest created a cross-Channel aristocracy, with many nobles holding lands in both England and Normandy."[^1]
In the centuries that followed, English kings would continue to hold significant territories in France, owing homage to the French king for these lands. The Angevin Empire of the 12th century, ruled by Henry II of England, stretched from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees. However, much of this territory was lost under King John in the early 13th century, leaving English kings with a diminished but still significant presence in France, centered on the prosperous Duchy of Aquitaine in the southwest.
This placed English monarchs in the difficult position of being sovereign in their own kingdom but subordinate to the French king on the continent. Disputes over the rights and obligations of this feudal relationship would simmer between England and France for generations, waiting to boil over.
The Cousins‘ War: Edward III and Philip VI
The immediate spark for the Hundred Years‘ War was the succession crisis that followed the death of King Charles IV of France in 1328. Charles died without a direct male heir, leaving uncertainty over who had the rightful claim to the French throne.
The two main claimants were Charles‘ first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and his nephew, King Edward III of England. Edward‘s claim rested on the fact that his mother, Isabella, was Charles‘ sister, giving him a direct bloodline. However, the French nobility chose to invoke Salic law, which prohibited succession through the female line, and crowned Philip as King Philip VI.
Initially, the 15-year-old Edward had little choice but to accept Philip‘s coronation and pay him homage for his French lands. However, relations between the two rulers quickly soured. Philip sought to assert his authority over Edward‘s lands in France, particularly the lucrative Duchy of Aquitaine. He also allied with Edward‘s enemies in Scotland and Flanders, further stoking tensions.
Matters came to a head in 1337 when Philip declared that Edward had forfeited his lands in France due to his disloyalty. An outraged Edward responded by reasserting his claim to the French throne, formally launching the Hundred Years‘ War. As historian Jonathan Sumption writes, "The war was not caused by Edward III‘s claim to the French throne…but it was the pretext for it."[^3]
The Early Campaigns: English Victories and French Setbacks
The first major campaign of the war came in 1346 when Edward III led an army of around 14,000 men, including many English and Welsh longbowmen, across the Channel.[^4] He won a stunning victory against a much larger French force at the Battle of Crécy, thanks in large part to the devastating effectiveness of the longbow.
The English followed up this victory by capturing the strategic port city of Calais after a lengthy siege. In 1356, another English force led by Edward‘s eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, won a similarly impressive victory at the Battle of Poitiers, even capturing the new French king, John II.
These early English successes were due in part to their use of new tactics and weapons, particularly the longbow. An English longbowman could shoot up to six arrows per minute with deadly accuracy, devastating the ranks of French knights.[^6] However, the French would adapt their tactics and the tide of the war would turn many times in the decades to come.
The Wider Impact: War and Society
The Hundred Years‘ War had a profound impact on the societies and economies of both England and France from its very outset. In England, the war effort led to increased taxation and the growth of Parliament‘s role in government, as the king sought funds for his campaigns. It also began to foster a greater sense of English national identity, united against a French enemy.
In France, the early defeats and capture of King John II threw the government into chaos. The Estates General, a representative assembly, gained new power and influence as it sought to manage the crisis.[^7] The war also devastated the French countryside, as English armies and mercenary companies ravaged and looted.
A New Chapter in an Old Rivalry
The origins of the Hundred Years‘ War lay in the complex relationship between England and France that had developed since the Norman Conquest. The dynastic dispute of 1328 and Philip VI‘s confiscation of Aquitaine in 1337 were the sparks that ignited the conflict, but the fuel had been building for centuries.
The war marked a turning point in European history, as England began to emerge as a major power in its own right, no longer tied to its role as a French vassal. It would also have a profound impact on the development of government, warfare, and national identity in both countries.
As historian Anne Curry notes, "The Hundred Years War was not a single conflict but a series of disputes, punctuated by periods of peace, between the kings of England and France."[^8] Its origins, however, lay in the fateful events of 1066 and the complex web of dynastic rivalries that followed. The war would go on to shape the course of European history for generations to come.
[^1]: David Green, "The Hundred Years War: A People‘s History" (Yale University Press, 2014), p. 7.[^2]: Illustration from Cassell‘s History of England, Century Edition, published circa 1902. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.
[^3]: Jonathan Sumption, "The Hundred Years War, Volume 1: Trial by Battle" (Faber and Faber, 1990), p. 183.
[^4]: Clifford J. Rogers, "The Wars of Edward III: Sources and Interpretations" (Boydell Press, 1999), p. 35.
[^5]: Illustration from a 15th-century manuscript of Froissart‘s Chronicles. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.
[^6]: Kelly DeVries, "The Longbow‘s Deadly Secrets," Military History 22, no. 8 (2005): 42-49.
[^7]: Jonathan Sumption, "The Hundred Years War, Volume 2: Trial by Fire" (Faber and Faber, 1999), p. 226.
[^8]: Anne Curry, "The Hundred Years‘ War, 1337-1453" (Osprey Publishing, 2002), p. 7.
