In September 1944, the Allied armies in western Europe, having broken out of Normandy and liberated Paris, stood poised to enter Germany itself. Hoping to end the war by Christmas, British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery conceived an audacious plan, code-named Market Garden, to seize bridges across the Rhine river in Holland and outflank the vaunted Siegfried Line defenses. If successful, Market Garden would open the path into the Ruhr valley, the industrial heart of the Third Reich.
The plan called for 35,000 paratroopers of the First Allied Airborne Army to seize key bridges, while the British XXX Corps advanced in a narrow armored column up a single road to relieve the airborne troops. However, despite heroic fighting, Market Garden failed to secure a bridgehead over the Rhine. This article explores the reasons for its failure.
A Rushed and Complex Plan
Montgomery‘s plan was conceived and launched in just seven days, leaving scant time for preparation. It called for three major airborne landings – the U.S. 101st and 82nd Airborne Divisions would seize bridges around Eindhoven and Nijmegen, while the British 1st Airborne Division was tasked with taking the bridge over the Rhine at Arnhem, 64 miles behind German lines.
Coordination between the airborne forces and the advancing armor was vital. However, the plan was exceedingly complex, requiring intricate timing and depending on a single narrow road that came to be known as "Hell‘s Highway." As historian Antony Beevor has written, "The idea of using a single road, raised like a dyke above the polder, as the main axis of the advance was madness." (Beevor, p. 147)
Intelligence Failure and German Strength
Allied intelligence failed to detect the presence of two crack SS Panzer divisions near Arnhem, which had been sent to Holland to refit. When British paratroopers landed near Arnhem on September 17, they quickly encountered fierce resistance from these units.
As Cornelius Ryan describes in his classic account A Bridge Too Far, "The roar of a Sherman‘s guns — such a tonic to an Allied soldier‘s ears — was to the Germans a signal to move even faster. From the west the tanks of the two SS Panzer divisions raced toward Arnhem." (Ryan, p. 456) Instead of a relatively undefended target, the British at Arnhem faced some of Germany‘s toughest troops.
Drop Zones Too Distant
Historian R.E. Urquhart, who as a major general led the 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem, later wrote that "The decision to land the whole of the 1st Airborne Division eight to ten miles from the vital objective, the bridge at Arnhem, was a highly important contributory factor in the failure of the whole operation." (Urquhart, p. 239)
With drop zones so distant, only a single battalion of the British 1st Airborne reached the Arnhem bridge. Though they captured the northern end, they lacked the strength to secure both sides. As German forces reacted and closed in, the British paratroopers were cut off from reinforcement.
The Germans React
German forces throughout the Market Garden area reacted rapidly and forcefully to the Allied landings. Within hours, SS Panzer units were engaging the British at Arnhem. Other German units launched repeated attacks on "Hell‘s Highway," the vital lifeline for the Operation.
On September 22, the German 107th Panzer Brigade cut the corridor near Veghel, delaying the advance of XXX Corps. Though the British guards managed to fight through to the Nijmegen bridge, the delay proved fatal for the surrounded British troops at Arnhem. As the U.S. Army‘s official history later concluded, "The Germans undoubtedly could not believe their eyes at first, but they reacted as quickly as they could in moving reserves to reinforce and counterattack the landings." (MacDonald, p. 131)
"A Bridge Too Far"
Only a single battalion of the British 1st Airborne, about 740 men, managed to reach Arnhem bridge, under the command of Lt. Colonel John Frost. Though they captured the northern end, they could not secure the southern end in the face of heavy German resistance.
For three days, Frost‘s men held on against overwhelming odds, awaiting the arrival of XXX Corps. But the armored units, held up by the initial drop zones being too distant and by German attacks along the single highway, could not fight through in time. On September 21, with his position hopeless, Frost sent a final radio message: "Out of ammunition. God Save the King." (Ryan, p. 519)
Surrounded and pummeled by German armor and artillery, the remainders of the 1st Airborne fought on for several more days in an ever-shrinking perimeter west of Arnhem. But with German forces firmly in control of the Arnhem bridge, the way across the Rhine was blocked. On September 25, the survivors of the 1st Airborne were withdrawn across the river, leaving behind over 1,200 dead and more than 6,600 captured. Of the 10,000 men who had landed at Arnhem, only 2,400 returned.
The Aftermath
The failure of Market Garden was a heavy blow to Allied hopes of ending the war quickly. Though the Allies had liberated large swaths of Holland, they had failed to secure a foothold over the Rhine. The war in Europe would rage on for another 8 months.
For the British, the heroic stand at Arnhem took on an almost mythic quality, celebrated in books and films like A Bridge Too Far. Though a defeat, it became a symbol of courage against overwhelming odds, of what the journalist Alan Wood called "the savage, unending struggle of an elite against the horrible realities of twentieth-century warfare." (Wood, p. x)
In the years since, historians have hotly debated the reasons for Market Garden‘s failure. Some have blamed Montgomery for his overconfidence and lack of preparation. Others have focused on the failure of Allied intelligence, the strength of German resistance, or the decision to land troops so far from their objectives.
As historian Martin Middlebrook concludes, "Many factors contributed to the failure of Market Garden but, in the end, the plan was probably asking too much of lightly-equipped airborne forces. It was a brave plan, but the battle had to be won quickly. The long fight could have only one outcome once the Germans had time to recover." (Middlebrook, p. 443)
Operation Market Garden remains one of the most dramatic and controversial battles of World War II, a daring gamble that came tantalizingly close to success but ultimately fell short. Its failure serves as a reminder of the risks and uncertainties inherent in even the most meticulously planned military operations. As Cornelius Ryan wrote, "In the end, it was the plan that failed, and not the men who had tried to carry it out." (Ryan, p. 576)
References
Beevor, Antony. Arnhem: The Battle for the Bridges, 1944. Viking, 2018.
MacDonald, Charles B. The Siegfried Line Campaign. Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1990.
Middlebrook, Martin. Arnhem 1944: The Airborne Battle. Viking, 1995.
Ryan, Cornelius. A Bridge Too Far. Simon & Schuster, 1974.
Urquhart, R.E. Arnhem. W.W. Norton, 1958.
Wood, Alan. Introduction. A Bridge Too Far. By Cornelius Ryan. Simon & Schuster, 1974.
