The Making of a Progressive Leader
Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President of the United States, took a unique path to the White House that shaped his worldview and leadership style. Born in Virginia in 1856 to a Presbyterian minister father, Wilson‘s religious upbringing instilled in him a strong moral compass and a belief in the power of ideas and oratory.
After earning a Ph.D. in political science from Johns Hopkins University, Wilson became a leading scholar of congressional government. As a professor at Princeton University, he advocated for reforms to make the American political system more like a British-style parliamentary system with a stronger executive branch. Wilson‘s academic expertise and his talent for communication propelled him to become president of Princeton in 1902.
Wilson‘s political career took off in 1910 when New Jersey Democrats recruited him to run for governor. As governor, Wilson implemented a progressive agenda, including direct primary elections, a workmen‘s compensation system, and regulation of public utilities. His success in New Jersey made him a contender for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1912.
The 1912 Election and the "New Freedom"
The 1912 presidential election was a defining moment in American political history. The Republican Party split between the conservative incumbent William Howard Taft and the progressive former president Theodore Roosevelt, who ran as a third-party candidate. With the Republicans divided, Wilson secured the Democratic nomination after a contentious convention that required 46 ballots.
In the general election, Wilson positioned himself as the progressive alternative to both Taft and Roosevelt. He campaigned on a platform called the "New Freedom," which promised to restore competition and break up corporate trusts. Wilson won a landslide victory in the Electoral College, receiving 435 out of 531 votes. However, he received only 41.8% of the popular vote in a four-way race.
| Candidate | Party | Popular Vote | % of Popular Vote | Electoral Votes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Woodrow Wilson | Democratic | 6,296,284 | 41.8% | 435 |
| Theodore Roosevelt | Progressive | 4,122,721 | 27.4% | 88 |
| William H. Taft | Republican | 3,486,242 | 23.2% | 8 |
| Eugene V. Debs | Socialist | 901,551 | 6.0% | 0 |
Source: Federal Election Commission
As president, Wilson pursued his "New Freedom" agenda with vigor. He signed the Underwood Tariff Act, which reduced the average import tariff rate from 40% to 25%, and implemented a graduated federal income tax. Wilson also created the Federal Reserve System to provide a more flexible and stable financial system.
On the trust-busting front, Wilson signed the Clayton Antitrust Act to strengthen the Sherman Antitrust Act and prohibit anti-competitive business practices such as price discrimination and interlocking directorates. His administration also established the Federal Trade Commission to investigate unfair trade practices.
Other progressive achievements included the Adamson Act, which established an 8-hour workday for railroad workers, and the Keating-Owen Child Labor Act, which limited child labor (although it was later ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court).
Neutrality Tested and the Road to War
When World War I broke out in Europe in July 1914, Wilson was determined to keep the United States out of the conflict. He issued a proclamation of neutrality and urged Americans to be "impartial in thought as well as in action." However, maintaining neutrality proved increasingly difficult as the war dragged on.
The biggest challenge to U.S. neutrality came from Germany‘s use of submarine warfare. In February 1915, Germany declared the waters around the British Isles a war zone and began sinking merchant ships without warning. The sinking of the British passenger liner Lusitania in May 1915, which killed 128 Americans, sparked outrage in the U.S. and brought the country closer to entering the war.
Wilson sought to negotiate an end to the conflict, sending his advisor Colonel Edward House to Europe on a peace mission in 1915. In a speech to the Senate in January 1917, Wilson called for a "peace without victory" based on his vision for a League of Nations. However, Germany‘s decision to resume unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917 and the revelation of the Zimmerman Telegram, in which Germany sought to enlist Mexico as an ally against the U.S., made U.S. entry into the war inevitable.
On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war against Germany. In his speech, he argued that the U.S. had no choice but to fight to make the world "safe for democracy." Congress voted overwhelmingly to declare war on April 6.
The U.S. mobilized quickly for war, implementing a draft and raising a massive army. By the summer of 1918, over 1 million American troops had arrived in France under the command of General John J. Pershing. American forces played a crucial role in the Allied counteroffensive that broke the German lines and led to the armistice on November 11, 1918.
The Fight for Peace and the League of Nations
Even before the U.S. entered the war, Wilson was thinking about the post-war world order. In his "Fourteen Points" speech to Congress in January 1918, Wilson outlined his vision for a just and lasting peace. The Fourteen Points included proposals for open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, arms reductions, and self-determination for peoples under foreign rule. The centerpiece of Wilson‘s plan was the creation of a League of Nations to provide a forum for resolving international disputes.
After the armistice, Wilson traveled to Paris to personally lead the American delegation at the peace conference. It was the first time a sitting U.S. president had traveled to Europe. At the conference, Wilson clashed with the other Allied leaders, who were more focused on punishing Germany and securing territorial gains than on creating a new world order.
The resulting Treaty of Versailles included some of Wilson‘s Fourteen Points, such as the creation of the League of Nations, but also imposed harsh reparations on Germany and redrew the map of Europe in ways that sowed the seeds for future conflicts. Wilson was forced to compromise on many of his principles in order to secure the creation of the League.
Back home, Wilson faced an uphill battle to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations Covenant. The Republican-controlled Senate, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, opposed the treaty on the grounds that it infringed on U.S. sovereignty and could drag the country into future European wars. In particular, Republicans objected to Article X of the League Covenant, which required member nations to come to the defense of any member that was attacked.
Wilson refused to compromise, insisting that the League was essential to preventing another war. In September 1919, he embarked on a grueling national speaking tour to rally public support for the treaty. However, the tour took a toll on Wilson‘s health, and he suffered a severe stroke in October that left him partially paralyzed.
With Wilson incapacitated, the Treaty of Versailles was defeated in the Senate in November 1919. The U.S. signed a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921 but never joined the League of Nations, dealing a severe blow to Wilson‘s vision for a new world order.
Legacy and Historical Evaluation
Woodrow Wilson left office in 1921 a broken man, his health shattered and his dream of a League of Nations in tatters. However, his legacy as a progressive reformer and international statesman endures.
On the domestic front, Wilson‘s "New Freedom" agenda laid the foundation for future progressive reforms, such as the New Deal under Franklin D. Roosevelt. Wilson‘s trust-busting efforts and the creation of the Federal Reserve System helped to level the playing field for small businesses and consumers.
In foreign affairs, while the League of Nations was ultimately a failure, Wilson‘s vision for international cooperation and collective security paved the way for the creation of the United Nations after World War II. His Fourteen Points also influenced the post-World War I settlement and the eventual decolonization of much of the world.
Wilson‘s legacy is complicated by his record on race relations. While he appointed the first Jewish Supreme Court Justice, Louis Brandeis, Wilson also oversaw the re-segregation of the federal government and screening of the racist film "Birth of a Nation" at the White House.
Despite these flaws, Wilson is widely regarded as one of the most consequential presidents in American history. A 2021 C-SPAN survey of historians ranked Wilson as the 13th best president, citing his vision and leadership during World War I and his domestic reforms.
In 1919, Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to create the League of Nations and his advocacy for a just and lasting peace after World War I. While his vision was not fully realized in his lifetime, it continues to inspire those who believe in the power of international cooperation to build a more peaceful and prosperous world.
